Not to do any evil, to cultivate good, to purify one's mind, this is the teaching of the Buddhas

In this paper, I wish to focus on the term Tathāgata. The main question is whether this is a designation for the Buddha or other great persons; and I would like to correct several Buddhist texts and modern scholar's works, make a comparative study and investigate the word Tathāgata, as the Buddha or the other saints. In the light of this term Tathāgata, M. Anesaki, in his paper has made a strong nomination. He said, whatever it may have meant originally, or from whatever sources it may have been derived, "Tathāgata" is an epithet of Buddha used to express his very personality.[1] In the same occasion, E. J. Thomas[2], R. L. Mitra[3], Jay L. Garfield[4], T. O. Ling[5], Garman C. C. Chang[6], and Robert A. F. Thurman[7] have unanimously maintained that, a primary designation of Buddha is "Tathāgata." In some situations, the word Tathāgata, used as a synonym for arahant, has been given in Buddhist texts. A Tathāgata can be described in the same way as an arahant, as one who has crossed the stream, set down his burden, and overcome his fetters. For instance in the Alagaddupamasutta of the Majjhima Nikaya, mentions:
And how, monks, does a monk come to be a pure one, the flag laid low, the burden dropped, without fetters? …… Monks, when a monk's mind is freed thus, the devas – those with Indra, those with Brahma, those with Pajapati, does not succeed in their search if they think: This is the discriminative consciousness attached to a Tathagata.[8]

On this point, even the Buddha himself did not deny the term of Tathāgata to an Arahat. For this, perhaps a good reason can be given, the term Tathāgata was given as an indication of a saint who had won emancipation of the mind. The supreme goal of Arahats was to win by his own thought and effort in precisely the same manner as the Buddha. And it is said that the Tathāgata did not speak against the truth (vitatham).[9] The Tathāgata is described by the Theravada texts as the one who knows and proclaims the Dhamma, the highest truth, the highest truth for humanity. Dhammakaya (Dhamma body) is said to be a designation of the Tathāgata.[10]

Robert Chalmers derives the word from Tatha and agata and interprets it as meaning "one who has come at the real truth."[11] H. Oldenberg asserted the word, which we translate as "the perfect one" (Tathāgata) is that which, most probably, Buddha used when he was speaking of himself.[12] In the opinion of C. A. F. Rhys Davids, however, the word means, "Thus come", and that Gautama Buddha's disciples gave him that name, because he "was believed to have come as a teacher in an order, according to which others had come."[13] Whereas, the interpretation given by George D. Bond, the term Tathāgata in the Pali scriptures of the Theravada Buddhist tradition occurs frequently as a title applied to the Buddha. But the derivation of the word, however, is uncertain. He further mentioned, the primary referent of Tathāgata for Buddhists, however, was always the Buddha, the Tathāgata in this sense is most often said to be the arahant above all others.[14]

On the other hand, R. O. Franke thinks that Tathāgata means "one, who has himself gone on the way that he teaches others." And he also points up that Tathāgata simply means "arhat, monk, and individual."[15] From another point of view, however, that of Edward Conze, who points up, Tathāgata is one of the fairly numerous Buddhist technical terms, which, like satkayadrsti (view of individuality), pratyekabuddha (analytical knowledge) or parijaya (mastery) are not amenable to satisfactory grammatical analysis. Their original meaning is somewhat implied, and their usual interpretation does not reflect the original usage, but that of the constructions of later grammarians and commentators.[16] The following are the primary interpretations that have been advanced:

II. Theravada Texts

I. In point of fact, regarding the tenets of the term, Tathāgata has been recorded in the Pasadika Suttanta of the Digha Nikaya, as the following:

And so, O Cunda, concerning things past, future and present the Tathāgata is a prophet[17] of the hour, a prophet of fact, a prophet of good, a prophet of the norm, a prophet of the discipline. For this he called Tathāgata.

Whatever, O Cunda, in this world with its Devas and Maras and Brahmas, is by the folk thereof, gods or men, recluses or Brahmins, seen, heard, felt, discerned, accomplished, striven for, or devised in mind, all is understood by the Tathāgata. For this he [is] called Tathāgata.

And all that in the interval between in night, O Cunda, wherein the Tathāgata was enlightened in the supreme enlightenment, and the night wherein he passed away without any condition of rebirth remaining, all that, in that interval, he speaks in discourse or conversation or exposition: all that is so, and not otherwise. For that is he called Tathāgata.

As the Tathāgata says, O Cunda, so he does; as he does, so he says. Inasmuch as he goes even according to his word, and his word is according to his going, for that is he called Tathāgata.

As to the world, O Cunda, with its Maras and its Brahmas, of all its folk, divine or human, recluses or Brahmins, the Tathāgata has surpassed them, have not by them been surpassed, survey them with sure vision, disposer of things. For that is he called Tathāgata.[18]

II. In the Anguttara Nikaya II. 25:
A Tathāgata is a seer of what is to be seen, but he does not mind the seen, the unseen, the seeable, and the seer. So likewise with the heard, the sensed and the cognized: he thinks of none of these modes of theirs. Therefore among things seen, heard, sensed and cognized he is precisely 'such'. Moreover, then, he who is 'such' there is no other 'such' further or more excellent.

III. In addition, Buddhaghosa has a long discussion of the term "Tathāgata" in the Sumangala Vilasini, Vol. I. pp. 59～68, a discussion, which he repeats word for word in commenting on the first Majjhima Sutta in his papabca sudani. According to Buddhaghosa the title Tathagata is divided into eight interpretations, as follows:

1. Tatha agato, he who has arrived in such fashion, i.e. who has worked his way upwards to perfection for the world’s good in the same fashion as all previous Buddhas.

2. Tatha gato, he who walked in such fashion, i.e.
A. He who at birth took the seven equal steps in the same fashion as all previous Buddhas,
B. He who in the same way as all previous Buddhas went his way to Buddhahood through the four Jhanas and the paths.

3. Tatha and agato (tatha-lakkhanam agato), he who by path of knowledge has come at the real essentials of things.

4. Tatha and agato (tathadhamme yathavato abhisambuddho), he who has won truth.

5. Tatha and agato (where the paraphrase is tathadassitya tathagato), he who has discerned truth.

6. Tatha and agato (where agato = agado and the paraphrase is tathavaditaya tathagato), he who declares truth.

7. Tatha gato (tathakaritaya tathagato), he whose words and deeds accord (gato = pavatto).

8. Tatha and agata (where agata = agada 'physic'), the great physician whose physic is all-potent.

In light of this point, D. T. Suzuki argued that the question is whether to divide Tathagata into Tatha and gata, or into Tatha and agata: in the first case, gata is "gone" or "departed," and in the second case, if it is agata, it means "is come" or "is arrived." Hence, the reason for the use of the term is uncertain. Whatsoever, he further mentioned it does not matter whether the Tathagata is the "one thus come," or the "one thus gone." When his appearance in the world is made the centre of interest, he is the "one who has thus come"; on the other hand if we think more of his disappearance from among us, he is the "one who has thus departed." To sum up, Chinese translators have adopted the second reading as they have rendered Tathagata by (ju-lai).[19] However, I think the main question is why he is designated "thus" ? And what does this "thus" mean? Perhaps this is what we wish to know and understand.

III. Mahayana Texts

IV. According to Mulamadhyamakakarika, Chapter XXII. Verses 4 and 5:
If self-existence does not exist, how does other-existence exist? Apart from self-existence and other-existence, what could be [the nature of] a Tathagata?
If a Tathagata exists without appropriating the skandhas, then he should be appropriating the skandhas now. And he should be a Tathagata in virtue of the appropriation.[20]

V. According to the Maha-Prajbaparamita-wastra, Taisho. 1509. Vol. XXV, p. 563b:
The ultimately real nature, of the Tathagata is not past or present or future… the ultimately real nature of the Tathagata is not in the real nature of the past, etc.; the ultimately real nature of the past etc. is not in the ultimately real nature of the Tathagata. The ultimately real nature of the past etc. and the ultimately real nature of the Tathagata, all this [is] one reality, not two, not divided. The ultimately real nature of the "I"… the ultimately real nature of the knowledge of all forms, the ultimately real nature of the Tathagata, all this is one reality, not two, not divided. When the Bodhisattva realizes this reality he is called the Tathagata.[21]

VI. The Vajracchedika (Diamond Sutra) maintained:
And again, O Subhuti, if anybody were to say that, the Tathagata goes, or comes, or stands, or sits, or lies down, he, O Subhuti, does not understand the meaning of my preaching, and why? Because the word Tathagata means one does not go to anywhere, and does not come from anywhere; and therefore he is called the Tathagata (truly come), holy and fully enlightened.[22]

IV. Modern scholars work

VII. R. C. Childers, A Dictionary of the Pali Language says: pp. 498～499
It is quite evident that the term Tathagata was first applied to a sentient being generally, and afterwards transferred to a Buddha. As a name for a Buddha it means the Being par excellence, the Great Being. Gautama Buddha frequently in the Suttas speaks of himself as the Tathagata, and the epithet is analogous to that of [the] son of man applied to himself by Jesus Christ. As a name for a sentient being it means "one who goes in like manner" i.e. one who goes the way of all flesh, one which is subject to death, a mortal. The native explanations of the term are purely fanciful.

VIII. T. W. Rhys Davids and Oldenberg have the following note on p. 82 of Part I of their translation of the Vinaya "Sacred Book of East", and say:
The term Tathāgata is, in the Buddhistical literature, exclusively applied to Sammasambuddhas, and it is more especially used in the Pitakas when the Buddha is represented as speaking of himself in the third person as "the Tathāgata."

IX. T. W. Rhys Davids, Pali English Dictionary says: p. 296
Tathāgata: The context shows that the word is an epithet of an Arahant, and that non - Buddhists were supposed to know what it meant. The compilers of the Nikāyas must therefore have considered the expression as pre - Buddhistic; but it has not yet been found in any pre - Buddhistic work.

X. G. P. Malalasekera, Pali Proper Names, says: Vol. I. p. 989
An epithet of the Buddha, used by the Buddha is referring to him. The explanations indicate that the name can be used for any arahant, and not necessarily only for a Buddha. The term was evidently pre-Buddhistic, though it has not yet been found in any pre-Buddhistic work.

XI. William Edward Soothill, A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms, says: p. 210
Tathāgata, defined as he who comes as do all other Buddhas; or as he who took the zhenru (真如) or absolute way of cause and effect, and attained to perfect wisdom; or as the absolute come; one of the highest titles of a Buddha. It is the Buddha in his nirmānakāya, i.e. his 'transformation' or corporeal manifestation descended on earth. The two kinds of Tathāgata are (1) the Tathāgata in bonds, i. e. limited and subject to the delusions and sufferings of life, and (2) unlimited and free from them. There are numerous sutras and śāstras bearing this title of rulai (如來).

XII. C. A. F. Rhys Davids, A Manual of Buddhism, says: pp. 106, 116
Those words mean literally "worthy-one, thus-going, rightly awakened." The first was used at the time for what our old literature would have called a "holy man." The second came to be used for any worthy disciple as well as for the Founder. The third will only have come into use long after this date as his exclusive title. Is this the Pali word Tathāgata? And is this not a term exclusively applied to the Sakyamuni himself? Is he not represented, in the original, as the model to be followed, because he has himself "thoroughly understood," and therefore directs? I answer: this term, meaning literally the thus come, or gone (tatha agato, tahta gato), was non-existent when the founder first spoke. When first used, it will have been a term for any disciple as "Way man" owing to the prominence first given in the teaching to the magga, or way. And still in the Suttas it fairly obviously means sincere follower, or "Way man". The past participle gata can also bear a present-participial meaning, "going" as it does in the parallel verb pati-panno, used often to describe the disciples as "walking" rightly.

XIII. E. J. Thomas, The History of Buddhist Thought says: p. 151
The name Tathāgata occurs as the name by which Buddha refers to himself. The derivation is not quite certain, for it might mean either "thus gone" (tatha-gata) or "thus come" (tatha-agata), but similar compounds like su-gata (well-gone) and samyag-gata (duly gone) make the former the more probable. The word is quite clear in its literal meaning of "having arrived at such a state".

V. Conclusion

According to the above, various designations were given. Unquestionably, the meaning of Tathāgata has been much discussed in the Buddhist texts and by Buddhist scholars, but so far nothing conclusive has been presented. But I think we can make sure and put forward, both the Buddha and Tathāgata are described by the standard formula as "wholly self-awakened, endowed with wisdom and virtuous conduct, well-farer, the knower of worlds, incomparable charioteer of men to be tamed, teacher of devas and men, the awakened one, the lord." Anyway, as a result, we can presumably and obviously say the term 'Tathāgata' is realized in Buddhism and expresses the oneness of the Buddha and the Tathāgata by giving the identical definition for the terms Buddha and Tathāgata. But the Mahayana texts interpret Tathāgata differently, as one who has attained full realization of suchness, and who, thus, neither comes from anywhere, nor goes anywhere. Hence, the primary meaning of the terms 'Buddha' and 'Tathāgata' are quite clear and leave no room for doubt.

【References】
- Anesaki, M. (1958) "Tathāgata" Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics. Vol. XII. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. pp. 202～204.

- Bond, D. George (1995) "Tathāgata" The Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol.13. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan. pp. 352～354.

- Chalmers, Robert. (1898) "Tathāgata" Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Great Britain and Ireland. pp. 103～115.

- Childers, R. C. (Reprinted 2003) A Dictionary of the Pali Language. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services.

- Conze, Edward. (1962) Buddhist Thought in India. London: Allen & Unwin.

- Dayal Har. (1970) The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, Ltd.

- Garfield, Jay L. (1995) The Fundamental Wisdom of the Middle Way: Nagarjuna's Mulamadhyamakakarika.《中觀論頌》New York: Oxford University Press.

- Garma, C. C. Chang. (1971) The Buddhist Teaching of Totality: The Philosophy of Hwa Yen Buddhism.《華嚴經》London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.

- Garma, C. C. Chang. (1983) A Treasury of Mahayana Sutra: Selection From the Maharatnakuta Sutra.《大寶集經》USA: The Pennsylvania State University Press.

- Horner, I. B. (2004) The Collection of the Middle Length Saying (Majjhima-Nikaya). Vol. II. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited. (First Indian Edition)

- Inada, K. Kenneth. (1970) Nagarjuna: A Translation of his Mulamadhyamakakarika with an Introductory Essay.《中觀論頌》Tokyo: The Hokuseido Press.

- Ling, T. O. (1972) A Dictionary of Buddhism. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.

- Oldenberg, H., William Hoey. (trans.) (Reprinted 2004) Buddha: His Life, His Doctrine, His Order. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited.

- Malalasekera, G. P. (2003) Dictionary of Pali Proper Names. Vol. I. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services.

- Masuda, Jiryo. (1925) Origin and Doctrines of Early Indian Buddhist Schools.《異部宗輪論》Leipzig: Verlag Der Asia Major.

- Mitra, R. L. (1998) The Lalita-Vistara.《方等本起經》New Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications.

- Muller, F. Max. (1894) "The Vajracchedika" The Sacred Books of the East. Vol. XLIX.《金剛經》Oxford: The Clarendon Press.

- Ramanan, K. Venkata. (1975) Nagarjuna's Philosophy: As Presented in the Mahaprajbaparamita-wastra.《大智度論》India: Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan.

- Rhys Davids, C. A .F. (1928) Gotama the Man. London: Luzac & Co.

- Rhys Davids, C. A .F. (1932) A Manual of Buddhism. London: The Sheldon Press.

- Rhys Davids, T. W. and Stede, William. (1997) Pali English Dictionary. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services.

- Rhys Davids, T. W. et el. (2000) Dialogues of the Buddha (Digha Nikaya). Vol. II. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited. (First Indian Edition).

- Soothill, William Edward. et el. (2000) A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms. London: Kegan Paul, Trench Trubner & Co Ltd.

- Suzuki, D. T. (1998) Studies in the Lankavatara Sutra.《楞伽經》 New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd.

- Thomas, Edward J. (1933) The History of Buddhist Thought. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, Ltd.

- Thomas, Edward J. (1935) Early Buddhist Scriptures. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co, Ltd.

- Thurman, Robert A. F. (1976) The Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti: A Mahayana Scripture.《維摩詰經》USA: The Pennsylvania State University Press.

Notes:
[1] Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. XII, p. 202
[2] An important epithet of Buddha is Tathāgata. See Early Buddhist Scriptures. p. 136
[3] The title of Tathāgata is one of the most dignified of those, which are given to a Buddha; the unanimous testimony of the Sutra and the legends prove that Sakyamuni had assumed it during the course of his instructions. See The Lalita-Vistara. p. 18 note 34.
[4] Tathāgata is an epithet of the Buddha. It is an ambiguous compound, meaning, depending upon how it is parsed, "thus gone" or "thus come", hence indicating either the one gone along the path of enlightenment, or the one come to teach the Buddhist doctrine. See The Fundamental Wisdom of the Middle Way. p. 276
[5] Tathāgata: Buddhist term, frequently used by the Buddha when he refers to himself; the meaning is literally either "he who has thus (tatha)" come or arrived (agata), or "he who has there (tatha) gone (gata)". See A Dictionary of Buddhism. p. 240
[6] Tathāgata: literally, "the thus come one." A title of the Buddha, it may mean he who has come and gone as have former Buddhas – that is, he imparts the same truth and follows the same path to the same goal. See A Treasury of Mahayana Sutra. p. 488 glossary.
[7] Tathāgata: literally "thus gone" or "thus come", one who proceeds always in consciousness of the ultimate reality, or that ness of all things, a name of the Buddha. See The Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti. p. 146 glossary.
[8] MN. I, 139～140
[9] Ibid. II, 108
[10] DN. III, 84; Cf. Nevertheless, in this point of view, perhaps we can compare it with the Mahasamghika, Ekavyavaharika, Lokottaravada and Kaukkutika schools that unanimously claimed, that there are no sasrava dharmas or defiled elements in all the Tathāgata, all the speeches of the Tathāgata are the preaching of the righteous law, and the rupakaya of the Tathāgata is indeed limitless. Origin and Doctrines of Early Indian Buddhist Schools. p. 19
[11] JRAS. (1898) p. 103
[12] Buddha: His Life, His Doctrine, His Order. p. 126 note.
[13] Gotama the Man. p. 45
[14] The Encyclopedia of Religion. p. 352
[15] The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature. Chapter I, note 25. p. 321
[16] Buddhist Thought in India. p. 172
[17] The word was defined by T. W. Rhys Davids, as literally, declarer, or speaker.
[18] DN. III, 135
[19] Studies in the Lankavatara Sutra. pp. 340～341
[20] Nagarjuna: A Translation of his Mulamadhyamakakarika with an Introductory Essay. p. 133
[21] Nagarjuna’s Philosophy: As Presented in the Mahaprajbaparamita-wastra. p. 269
[22] The Sacred Books of the East. Vol. XLIX, p. 142

The Beauty of the University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka (校園的建築和樹林)

2007-12-22T08:56:00.000-08:00

Buddhist Articles on the Web

2007-12-22T01:28:00.000-08:00

All the articles below are available on the web, for details please visit: http://www.wuys.com/news/BuddhistE3.ASP

Abhidhamma Abhivinaya in the First Two of the Pali Canon (I. B. Horner)Abhidhamma Studies: Buddhist Explorations of Consciousness (Ven. Nyanaponika) Account of the Buddha's Nirvana and the First Councils (Obermiller, E.)
Action and Suffering in the Theravadin Tradition (Ninian Smart)
Ah, But There is a Paradox of Desire in Buddhism - A reply to Wayne (A. L. Herman)
Ajivika (生活派) (Charpentier, Jarl)
Amaravati: Buddhist Sculpture from the Great Stupa (Robert L. Brown)
America Becoming Fertile Mission Field for Buddhism (Stan Guthrie)
America's First Tibetan Monk Champions a Message of Peace (Daniel B. Wood)
American Buddhists: Who Are They? (Jan Nattier)
American Encounter with Buddhism (Susan Curtis)
American Society in the Buddhist Mirror (James V. Spickard)
An Appraisal of the Svatantrika(自立論證派) Prasangika (應成派) Debates (N. Katz)
An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practice (Collett Cox)
Analysis in Theravada Buddhism (Donald W. Mitchell)
Analysis of a Sinitic Mahayana Phenomenon (Whalen Lai)
Anatta - A Reply to Richard Taylor (Tyson Anderson)
Anatta Doctrine and Personal Identity (Richard Taylor)
Ancient Indian Sects and Orders Mentioned by Buddhist Writer (Bendall, C.)
Ancient Zen Master as Clown-Figure and Comic Midwife (M. Conrad Hyers)
Anthropic Web of the Universe: Atom and Atman (Gradinarov, Plamen)
Anti-Abstraction of Dignaga (陳那) and Berkeley (Ewing Y. Chinn)
Antiquity of Tantricism (C. Chakravarti)
Appearance and Reality in Chinese Buddhist (Bongkil Chung)
Applied Idealism (Yen. Sheng)
Approaches to Existence (Milton K. Munitz)
Architecture of Bhutan (David Nock)
Are Psychedelics (起幻覺的) Useful in the Practice of Buddhism? (Myron J, Stolaroff)
Art and Identity: The Rise of a New Buddhist Imagery (G.M. Tartakov)
Asceticism in Buddhism and Brahmanism: A Comparative Study (S. Ryokai)
Asian Odyssey of Henry Steel Olcott (Jacob N. Kinnard)
Asian Odyssey of Henry Steel Olcott (Prothero, Stephen)
Asian Social Engagement and the Future of Buddhism (Donald W. Mitchell)
Asian Values and Global Human Rights (Fred Dallmayr)
Asoka and the Buddha-Relics (T. W. Rhys Davids)
Asoka's Dreamer (Justin Davidson)
Asoka's Mission to Ceylon and Some Connected Problems (Jyotirmay Sen)
Aspects of Justice in Ancient India (Frederic B. Underwood)
Aspects of the ‘Bodhisattva’ Ideal in the Mahayana (Harry Oldmeadow)
Atta, Niratta, and Anatta in the Early Buddhist Literature (Biswadeb Mukherjee)
Authorship of Nyayapravesa《因明入正理論》(A. Berriedale Keith)
Avoiding the Void the Lack of Self in Psychotherapy and Buddhism (David R. Loy)
Awakening (Stephen, Mansfield)

B
Basic Concept in India's Philosophical Speculations (Kunst, Arnold)
Bayou Lotus: Theravada Buddhism in South Western Louisiana (Carl L. Bankston)
Beneficence as the Moral Foundation in Won Buddhism (Bongkil Chung)
Better for Buddhists, Better for Business (Dave Brousell)
Beyond Good and Evil: A Buddhist Critique of Nietzsche (David Loy)
Bhaviveka (淸辯) and the Early Madhyamika Theories of Language (Malcolm, D. E.)
Bibliography of Buddhist Studies Bibliographies in Western (David Loy)
Bibliography of Translations from the Chinese Buddhist Canon (anonimity)
Biographical Scripture of King Asoka (Li Rongxi)
Biographies of Eminent Monks in a Comparative Perspective (Koichi Shinohara)
Blessed are the Birth-Givers: Buddhist Views on Birth and Rebirth (Miranda Shaw)
Body mind Experience in Japanese Buddhism (David Edward Shaner)
Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhism (Aaron K. Koseki)
Bodhisattva Ideal in Theravada (Jeffrey Samuels)
Bodhisattvas in the Lotus and Other Sutras (Margarita I. V. Desyato)
Bones, Stone and Buddhist Monks (John Clifford Holt)
Book Notes: Buddhism and Language: A Study of Indo-Tibetan (Jose I. Cabezon)
Book Notes: Studies in the Literature of the Great Vehicle (Luis O. Gomez)
Book Review Japanese Buddhism: A Cultural History (Yoshiro Tamura)
Book Review Imagining Karma: Ethical Transformation (Gananath Obeyesekere)
Book Review: Mindfulness in the Marketplace: A Compassionate (Eric S. Nelson)
Book Review Philosophers of Nothingness: An Essay on the Kyoto School (Diana L.P.)
Book Review Subverting Hatred: The Challenge of Nonviolence (Paul Waldau)
Book Review the Buddha: A Short Biography (John S. Strong)
Book Review the Cult of Nothingness: The Philosophers and the Buddha (R. P. Droit)
Book Review the Monk and the Philosopher: East Meets West (Seyed Javad)
Buddha and the Christ: Explorations in Buddhist (Roger Corless)
Buddha and Devadatta (提婆達多) (A. M. Hocart)
Buddha and the Whiteheadian[1] God (Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki)
Buddha and Wittgenstein: A Brief Philosophical Exegesis (Kalansuriya)
Buddha Books (Tony, Bernhard)
Buddha Eye: An Anthology of the Kyoto School (Frederick Franck)
Buddha's Love and Human Love (Shohei Ichimura)
Buddha Nature and the Concept of Person (Sallie B. King)
Buddha - Saint or Guru (Salihood)
Buddha's Way (Peskind, Steve Advocate)
Buddhism: A Cultural Perspective (LaFleur, William R)
Buddhism: A History (Gary Young)
Buddhism, Activism, and Unknowing: A Day with Bernie Glassma (C. Queen)
Buddhism and American Thinkers (Kenneth K. Inada)
Buddhism and Bioethics (Damien Keown)
Buddhism and Christianity: Rivals and Allies (Arnold Wettstein)
Buddhism and Cognitivism: A postmodern Appraisal (John Pickering)
Buddhism and Counselling (Anonimity)
Buddhism and Ecology: The Interconnection of Dharma and Deed (Steven Heine)
Buddhism and Ethics (Rhys Davids, C. A. F.)
Buddhism and Language: A Study of Indo-Tibetan Scholasticism (C.W. Huntington)
Buddhism and Money: The Repression of Emptiness Today (David Loy)
Buddhism and Poverty (David Loy)
Buddhism and Psychotherapy: The Role of Self-Control Strategy (Padmal de Silva)
Buddhism and Revolution (R. Puligandla and K. Puhakka)
Buddhism and the Changing Society in Modern Ceylon (W. Pachow)
Buddhism and the Definition of Religion: One More Time (W. Herbrechtsmeier)
Buddhism and the Formation of Gentry Society in Late-Ming China (R. V. Des Forges)
Buddhism and the Maritime Links of Early (Ray, Himanshu P.)
Buddhism Blossoms in French Wine Country (Ste. Foy La Grande) (Thomas C. Fox)
Buddhism Comes to Main Street (Jan Nattier)
Buddhism, Euthanasia and the Sanctity of Life (Perrett, Roy W.)
Buddhism Faces Modernity in Thailand (Ben Barber)
Buddhism in Chinese Society: An Economic History from the Fifth to Ten Centuries (Jacques Gernet)
Buddhism in Heraclitus[2] (Edmund J. Mills)
Buddhism in Huxley's[3] Evolution and Ethics: (Jacques Gernet)
Buddhism in Practice (Jeff Shirkey)
Buddhism, Modernization, and Science (Nolan Pliny Jacobson)
Buddhism Transformed: Religious Change in Sri Lanka (Edmund Perry)
Buddhist Aesthetic Nature (Kenneth K. Inada)
Buddhist and Western Psychology (Nathan Katz)
Buddhist Approaches to Abortion (R. E. Florida)
Buddhist Art of Nagarjunakonda (Elizabeth Rosen Stone)
Buddhist Behavioral Codes and the Modern World (Charles Weihsun)
Buddhist Bridge to Bioethics (Leslie Rezac)
Buddhist Conceptions of 'Subject' and 'Object' (David J. Kalupahana)
Buddhist Conception of Time and Temporality (David J. Kalupahana)
Buddhist Cosmology in Abhidharma, Kalacakra (時輪) and Dzog-Chen. (Jamgon K.)
Buddhist Critique of Some Secular Heresies (David R. Loy)
Buddhist Critique to the Classical Chinese Tradition (D. J. Kalupahana)
Buddhist Critique to the Classical Chinese Tradition (Jan Yun-Hua)
Buddhist Doctrines of Momentariness and Subjective Idealism (Anomnimoty)
Buddhist Economics (E. F. Schumacher)
Buddhist Economic System - In Practice (Pryor, F.L)
Buddhist Education in Pali and Sanskrit Schools (E. J. Thomas)
Buddhist Engagement in the Global Economy (Helena Norberg-Hodge)
Buddhist Epic from Thailand (Michael W. Charney)
Buddhist Ethics (Hammalawa Saddhatissa)
Buddhist Evidence for the Early Existence of Drama (Wijesekera, O. H. De. A.)
Buddhist Faith and Sudden Enlightenment (Park, Sung Bae)
Buddhist Forum, Vol. 1, Seminar Papers 1987-1988 (Collet Cox)
Buddhist Functionalism - Instrumentality Reaffirmed (David, Scott)
Buddhist Heritage (Collet Cox)
Buddhist Hermeneutics: A Conference Report (Donald S. Lopez, Jr.)
Buddhist-Human Parallels: Postmortem (L. Stafford Betty)
Buddhist Icon and the Modern Gaze (Bernard Faure)
Buddhist Just Rule and Burmese National Culture (Juliane Schober)
Buddhist Learning and Textual Practice (Anne M. Blackburn)
Buddhist Logic before Dinnaga (Guiseppe Tucci)
Buddhist Manuscripts at Gilgit (Dutt, Nalinaksha)
Buddhist Monastic Terms Amatittika (Hoernle, Rudolf.)
Buddhist 'Not This, Not This' (Alex Wayman)
Buddhist Nuns in Sri Lanka (Tessa Bartholomeusz)
Buddhist Path and Social Responsibility (Jack Kornfield)
Buddhist Perspective on the Teachings of Jesus (Claire Sykes)
Buddhist Perspective on the Teachings of Jesus (B. Cobb)
Buddhist Perspectives with Particular Reference to the Thera (Frank E. Reynolds)
Buddhist Practices Make Inroads in the US (Daniel B Wood)
Buddhist Protest Death Sentence (Tim, Vanderpool)
Buddhist Psychology: A Review of Theory and Practice (Padmal, Silva)
Buddhist Psychology of Emptiness (David Ross Komito)
Buddhist Reading of Aquinas (James L. Fredericks)
Buddhist Reductionism (Mark Siderits)
Buddhist Reflections on Life (Francis H. Cook)
Buddhist Reflections on Responding to Terrorism and Tragedy (Peter D. Hershock)
Buddhist Reflections on Technology (David R. Loy)
Buddhist Reflections on the New Holy War (David R. Loy)
Buddhist Reflections on Western Phenomenology (Steven W. Laycock)
Buddhist Remedy (Hayao Kawa)
Buddhist Response to the Information Age (Peter D. Hershock)
Buddhist Saints in India: A Study in Buddhist Values and Orientation (K. Trainor)
Buddhist's Shakespeare: Affirming Self-Deconstructions (Sidney Gottlieb)
Buddhist Spectrum (Marco Pallis)
Buddhist Spirituality a Compassionate Perspective on Hospice (Pam McGrath)
Buddhist Symbols in Tibetan Culture: (Donna Seaman)
Buddhist Teachers in America (Lenore Friedman)
Buddhist Temple in Thailand (Juliane Schober)
Buddhist Theories of Causation - Commentary (Donald W. Mitchell)
Buddhist Theory of Meaning (Apoba) and Negative Statement (Dhirendra Sharma)
Buddhist Tract on Empiricism (D. J. Kalupahana)
Buddhist View of Repression (David Loy)
Buddhist Views of Suicide and Euthanasia (Carl B. Becker)
Buddhist 'Wheel of Life' from a New Source (Louis de la Vallee Poussin)
Buddhist Women (B. C. Law)
Buddhist World of Southeast Asia (Peter Skilling)
Buddhistic Rule against Eating Meat (E. Washburn Hopkins)
Buddhistic Technical Terms Upadana (無餘) and Upadisesa (有餘) (A. O. Lovejoy)
Building the Buddha Field (J. L. Walker)
Business Ethics, Eastern Style (Yoshio Maruta)

C
Can Corporations Become Enlightened? (David Loy)
Can the East Help the West to Value Nature (Holmes Rolston.)
Candrakirti's Critique of Vijnanavada (Olson, Robert F.)
Candrakirti's Denial of the Self (James Duerlinger)
Candrakirti's Refutation of Buddhist Idealism (Peter G. Fenner)
Causality as Soteriology (Hsueh-Li Cheng)
Causality: Eternal or Momentary? (Winston L. King)
Causality in the Nyaya-Vaisesika (勝論派) School (Francis Cook)
Causation in the Chinese Hua-Yen Tradition (Francis Cook)
Challenge of Buddho-Taoist Metaphysics of Experience (Kenneth K. Inada)
Ch'an and Taoist Mirrors: (Dan Lusthaus)
Ch'an Buddhism and the Prophetic Poems of William Blake (Mark S. Ferrar)
Ch'an Buddhism in China - Its History and Method (Hu Shih)
Ch'an Buddhism: Logical and Illogical (Chung-Yuan Chang)
Ch'an Metaphors: Waves, Water, Mirror, Lamp (Whalen Lai)
Changes in Self-Concept, Ego Defense Mechanisms and Religious (E. Tipawadee)
Chih-I's (智顗) Illustration of Religious Practice (沈海燕)
Chih-I's System of Sign Interpretation (沈海燕)
Chih-I's Theory of Truth (沈海燕)
Chinese Bhiksunis in the Chan Tradition (Heng-Ching Shih)
Chinese Buddhist Causation Theories (Whalen Lai)
Chinese Buddhist Water Vessel and Its Indian Prototype (Artibus Asiae)
Chinese Doctrinal Acceptance of Buddhism (Kenneth K. Inada)
Chinese Madhyamaka Theory of Truth: The case of Chi-Tsang (Ming-Wood Liu)
Civilized Shamans: Buddhism in Tibetan Societies (Cathy Cantwell)
Classical Indian Axiomatic (Richard H. Robinson)
Collected Papers Monastic Buddhism in India (Gregory Schopen)
Colossal Buddhas (J. Hackin)
Coming to Terms with Chinese Buddhism (Robert H. Sharf)
Comment on Samatha, Samapatti (等至), and Dhyana in Chan (Chen, C. M.)
Comments on the Paradoxicality of Zen Koans (Michael E. Levin)
Community, Violence, and Peace (Vasanthi Srinivasan)
Comparative Phenomenology (Clarence Shute)
Comparative Studies in Existentialism (Padmasiri de Silva)
Comparative Study and Buddhist Works in Chinese Translation (B. Mukherjee)
Comparative Study of 'No-Thought' (無念) in Some Indian (Jan Yun-Hua)
Compassion: An East-West Comparison (Patricia Walsh-Frank)
Concept of Practice in San-Lun Thought (Koseki, Aaron K)
Concept of the Absolute in Chan Buddhism (Yun-Hun Jan)
Conception of Language and the Use of Paradox (Edward T. Ch’ine)
Conflict and Harmony in Chan and Buddhism (Jan Yun-hua)
Confucianism and Zen (Chan) (Hsueh-Li Cheng)
Contemporary Buddhist Philosophy: A Biographical Essay (Frank J. Hoffman)
Contemporary Significance of Chinese Buddhist Philosophy (S. Ichimura)
Contingency and the Time of the Dream (Botz-Bornstein, Thorsten)
Control and Freedom the Structure of Buddhist Meditation (Donald K. Swearer)
Conze on Buddhism and European Parallels (Alex Wayman)
Cosmology and Meditation Agganna-Sutta Mahayana (Rupert Gethin)
Couch and the Tree: Dialogues in Psychoanalysis and Buddhism (Anthony Molino)
Crisis of Madhyamika and Indian Philosophy Today (Panikkar, Raymond)
Critical Genealogy of Northern Chan Buddhism (Bernard Faure)
Cross-Cousin Relation between Buddha and Devadatta (Mitra, Kalipada)
Cultural Critique of Chan/Zen Buddhism (Stuart Sargent)
Curators of the Buddha: The Study of Buddhism under Colonial (Donald S. Lopez)
Curators of the Buddha: The Study of Buddhism under Colonial (Jeffrey R. Timm)
Curators of the Buddha: The Study of Buddhism under Colonial (John C. Holt)
Current Western Interest in Zen (Van Meter Ames)
Cursing Practice in Sri Lanka (J. P. Feddema)

D
Dalai Lama and the World Religions: A False Friend? (Jane Compson)
Dalai Lama's Choice of Boy as Key Figure Angers Atheist (Sheila, Tefft)
Dalai Lama Gains Popularity as Interest in Buddhism Rises (D.B.W)
Darstantika (譬喻者部), Sautrantika (經量者部) and Sarvastivadin (Jean Przyluski)
Date of Buddhadasa of Ceylon from a Chinese Source (Edward R. Ayrton)
Date of Buddhas Death, as Determined By a Record of Asoka (J.F. Fleet)
Date of Kanishka (J. F. Fleet)
David Loy Interview Buddhist-Christian Studies (David Loy)
Dawn of Serenity: Letter from Borobudur. (Indonesia) (Eiji Hattori)
Dead Words, Living Words, and Healing Words (David R. Loy)
Death, Sleep, and Orgasm: Gateways to the Mind of Clear Light (Jeffrey Hopkins)
Debates among Buddhists and Taoists in Medieval China (Chi-tim Lai)
Debates among Buddhists and Taoists in Medieval China (Farzeen, B. Hussein)
Deconstructing Life-Worlds: Buddhism, Christianity, Culture (Charles B. Jones)
Deconstruction of Buddhism (David R. Loy)
Defeat of Vijnaptimatrata (唯識性) in China: (Whalen Lai)
Defense of Yogacara Buddhism (Alex Wayman)
Demystifying Tibet (Lee Feigon)
Dependent Arising and the Emptiness of Emptiness (Jay L. Garfield)
Dependent Origination and the Dual-Nature of the Japanese (Railey, J. McMaho)
Dependent Origination - The Indo-Tibetan Tradition (Alex Wayman)
Desire, Death and Goodness (James P. McDermott)
Desirelessness and the Good (Laurence J. Rosan)
Development of Buddhist Art in South India (Devaprasad Ghosh)
Dharma and Moksa (Daniel H. H. Ingalls)
Dharma of Emanuel Swedenborg: A Buddhist Perspective (David Loy)
Dharmakirti's Refutation of Theism (有神論) (Roger Jackson)
Dharmamegha Samadhi (法住三摩地): Comments on Yogasutra IV, 29 (K. Klaus)
Dhammapada: Tradition of Dharma Verses with the Tibetan Text (dGe-dun Chos-phel)
Dharmapada (Miroslav Rozehnal)
Dhyana: The long, Pure Look (Padma Hejmadi)
Dialectics of Nothingness (Steven W. Laycock)
Dialogues with Death: The Last Days of Socrates and the Budd (Matthew Dillon)
Did Nagarjuna Really Refute All Philosophical Views? (Richard H. Robinson)
Did Buddha Die of Eating Pork? : With a Note on Buddha's (Waley, Arthur)
Differentialism in Chinese Ch'an and French Deconstruction (Magliolia, Robert)
Digital Comparative Catalogue of the Pāli-Chinese Āgama (Trial Version)
Dimensions of Indian Buddhism (Jan Yun Huan)
Dinaga's Theory of Immaterialism (D. J. Kalupahana)
Direct Sensory Awareness: A Tibetan View and a Medieval Counterpart (A. Charlene)
Disciplines of Attention (Anomnimoty)
Discovery of a Bone-Relic at an Ancient Centre of Mahayana (Anomnimoty)
Discovery of Buddha's Birthplace (G. Buhler)
Discussion of Time in Mahayana Texts (Lewis R. Lancaster)
Discussion on the Determination of the Date of the (Choong, Mun-Keat)
Disputed Dharmas (Collett Cox)
Dissolution of Self and Other in Chan Buddhism (Peter D. Hershock)
Divergence, Convergence: Buddhist-Christian Encounters. (Leo D. Lefebure)
Divine Emptiness and Historical Fullness (Harold Kasimow)
Divinity in Process thought and the Lotus Sutras (Reeves, Gene)
Do You Remember? A Buddhist Reflection (Kenyon Review)
Doctrine of Awakening (Julius Evola)
Doctrine of Kaya in Hinayana and Mahayana (N. Dutt)
Doctrines of Perfect Teaching (N. Dutt)
Dramatic Intervention: Human Rights from a Buddhist Perspective (D. H. Peter)
Dreams and Reality: The Sankarite Critique of Vijnanavada (Muso Kokushi)
Dream Conversations on Buddhism and Zen (Muso Kokushi)
Doing Philosophy and Doing Zen (Charles S. Hardwick)
Double Reincarnation (Caroline Nath)

E
Early Advaita (不二) Vedanta and Buddhism (Richard King)
Early Buddhism and John Stuart Mill’s Thinking (Vijitha Rajapakse)
Early Buddhism: Some Recent Misconceptions (Henry Cruise)
Early Buddhist Art and the Theory of Aniconism (無神論) (S. L. Huntington)
Early Buddhist Notion of the Middle Path (David J. Kalupahana)
Early Buddhist Philosophy of Moral Determinism (V. P. Varma)
Early Economic Conditions in Northern India (C. F. Rhys Davids)
Early Greek Philosophy and Madhyamika (Thomas McEvilley)
Early Prajna Schools, Especially Hsin-Wu (Whalen W. Lai)
Early Samkhya (數論派) in the Buddhacarita (Kent, Stephen A.)
Early Yogacara and Its Relationship with the Madhyamaka (Kent, Stephen A.)
Eight Great Caityas and their Cult (Bagchi, P.C.)
Eighteen Lohan of Chinese Buddhist Temples (Watters, T.)
Elaborations on Emptiness: Uses of the Heart Sūtra (Donald S. Lopez, Jr.)
Emergence of Ch’an Buddhism a Revisionist Perspective (Charles W. Swain)
Emptiness and Moral Perfection (Luis O. Gomez)
Emptiness of Christ: A Mahayana Christology (John P. Keenan)
Empty Logic: Madhyamika Buddhism from Chinese Sources (Hsueh-li Cheng’s)
Encounter of Buddhism and Western Culture (Wesley Palmer)
Encounter of Buddhism and Western Culture (Chris Arthur)
Encounter with the Imagined Other: A Yogacara-Buddhist Critics (Chen-Kuo Lin)
Endo and Johnston Talk of Buddhism and Christianity (William Johnston)
Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia (Jeffrey R. Timm)
Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia (Michael G. Barnhart)
Enlightenment and Social Virtuosity in Chan Buddhism (Peter D. Hershock)
Enlightenment below (Cheryl Kent)
Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta (David Loy)
Environmental Problematics in the Buddhist Context (Kenneth K. Inada)
Epithets of an Arhat in the Divyavadana (天譬喻) (Thomas,Edward J.)
Epoche and Sunyata: Skepticism East and West (Jay L. Garfield)
Error and Truth-Classical Indian Theories (Matilal, Bimal)
Essays on the Absolute (貝葉)
Essential Tibetan Buddhism (Digby Anderson)
Essential Tibetan Buddhism (Janice D. Willis)
Eternal Food (Francis Zimmermann)
Ethics in Early Buddhism (Damien Keown)
Ethics in Early Buddhism (David J. Kalupahana)
Ethics in Early Buddhism (Richard King)
Euthanasia in Buddhism and Christianity (Damien Keown)
Everyday Practice, Buddhist and Christian (Scott Whitney)
Evolution of Buddhist Systematics (Jose Pereira and Francis Tiso)
Evolving Mind (Jose Pereira and Francis Tiso)
Existential and Ontological Dimensions of Time in Heidegger (Steven Heine)
Experience of Buddhism (John S. Strong)
Existential Nature of Buddhist Ultimates (Winston L. King)
Explorations in Buddhist Meditation and Symbolism (Martin Stuart-Fox)

F
Fables in the Vinaya-Pitaka of the Sarvastivada in School (Jean Przyluski)
Faces of Buddhism in America (Charles S. Prebish)
Fan Chen's Treatise on the Destructibility of the Spirit (Ming-Wood Liu)
Feminism and World Religions (Jordan Paper)
Few Evidences on the Age of the Kathavatthu《論事》(Barua, Dwijendra Lal)
Field Concept of Matter in Relativity Physics (Mendel Sachs)
Fight for the Panchen Lama (Tim McGirk)
Fire and Water: Basic Issues in Asian Buddhism and Christian (Pieris. A.)
First Argument for Sarvastivada (David Bastow)
First Systematizations of Buddhist Thought in China (Leon Hurvitz)
Five Rivers of the Buddhists (W. Hoey, D.Lit., I.C.S)
Food for the Thinking Mind (K. Sri Dhammananda)
Formation of Chan Ideology in China and Korea (Robert E. Buswell, Jr.)
Foundational Standpoint of Mādhyamika Philosophy (Gadjin Nagao)
Foundations of Ecology in Zen Buddhism (Ven. Sunyana Graef)
Foundations of Ethics and Practice in Chinese Pure Land Buddhism (C. B. Jones)
Fourth Buddhist Patriarch and High Priest of Asoka (L.A.Waddell, LL.D.)
Fragment of the Pancavimsatisahasrika Prajnaparamita《二萬五千頌般若波羅蜜多經》(Bongard-Levin, G.M)
Free at Last in Paradise (Ananda W. P. Guruge)
Fundamentals of Buddhist Ethics (Gunapala Dharmasiri)
Fundamental Wisdom of the Middle Way (Dan Arnold)
Future of Chinese Buddhist Thought (Whalen Lai)

G
Gandhari and the Early Chinese Buddhist Translations Reconsidered: The Case of the Saddharmapundarikasutra《法華經》(Daniel Boucher)
Generous Doctrine of Skillful Means (Jeff Behrens)
Go East, Young Monk: A Western Touch at a Buddhist Blast (Michael Baker)
Golden Age of Zen (John C. Wu)
Good Heart (Yelle, Robert A.)
Gradual Enlightenment, Sudden Enlightenment and Empiricism (Teschner, G.) Graeco-Buddhist Sculpture Representing the Buddha (C. L. Fabri)
Great Stupa at Nagarjunakonda in Southern India (A. H. Longhurst)

H
Hair and the Usnisa (頂髻) (Chanda, Ramaprasad)
Harivarman's (師子鎧) Satyasiddhi-sastra《成實論》(Johannes Rahder)
Harmonious Universe of Fa-Tsang (法藏) and Leibniz[4] (Ming-wood Liu)
Healing Deconstruction: Postmodern Thought in Buddhism and Christianity (D. Loy)
Healing Justice - A Buddhist Perspective (David Loy)
Heart of Buddhist Philosophy (Nolan Pliny Jacobson)
Heidegger and Buddhism (Takeshi Umehara)
Hidden Advantage of Tradition (Jeffry M. Perl)
Hindu and Buddhist Arts (Romain Maitra)
Hinduism and Buddhism in Greek Philosophy (A. N. Marlow)
Historical Buddha (Gotama), Hume, and James on the Self (D. C. Mathur)
Historical Structure of the Eternal (Makoto Ozaki)
History and Orientalism in the Study of Pure Land Buddhism (Galen Amstutz)
History and Religion (Arthur Waley)
History of Buddhist Architecture in Sri Lanka (L. K. Karunaratne)
History of Buddhist Philosophy (David J. Kalupahana)
History of Religious Ideas (Mircea Eliade)
History of the Civilizations of Central Asia (Charles C. Kolb)
How Buddhism Began: The Conditioned Genesis of the Early Teachings (F. Gombrich)
How Buddhism Came to Karnasuvarna (Xuan Zang)
How Buddhistic is Wang Yang-Ming? (Wing-Tsit Chan)
How Can One Be A Taoist-Buddhist Confucian? (Monmouth College)
How Many Nondualities are there? (David Loy)
How Many Sūtra Passages Are Indicated (William Magee)
How mystical is Buddhism? (Roger R. Jackson)
How not to Criticize Nāgārjuna (David Loy)
Hsiung Shih-Lis (熊十力) Theory of Causation (Liu, Shu-hsien)
Hui-Neng (慧能) and the Transcendental Standpoint (Steven W. Laycock)
Human Body as a Boundary Symbol (Carl Olson)
Humanistic Buddhism as Conceived and Interpreted (Richard L. Kimball)
Humanistic Buddhism from Venerable Tai Xu to Grand Master Hsing Yun (D. Long)
Humanistic Buddhism in Tibetan Tradition (James Santucci)
Humanistic Buddhism of the 20th Century (Lewis Lancaster)

I
I-Ching and the Formation of the Hua-Yen Philosophy (Whalen Lai)
If a Tree Falls a Monk's Blessing for Thailand's for (Steve Magagnini)
Illusionism (Mayavada) in Late T'ang Buddhism (Whalen W. Lai)
Images of Chinese Buddhism by Marsha Weidner (Wang Eugene Yuejin)
Imagine Buddha in Prambanan (印尼巴蘭班南) (Jordaan, Roy E.)
Imagine Buddha in Prambanan (Katherine Hacker)
Imagining Medieval Japanese Buddhism (James H. Foard)
Impact of Early Buddhism on Hindu Thought (K. N. Upadhaya)
In the Mirror of Memory (Janet Gyatso)
Indian Architectural Terms (Ananda K. Coomaraswamy)
Indian Sources on the Possibility of a Pluralist View of Religion (Judson B. Trapnell)
Indian Thought and Humanistic Psychology (Winthrop, Henry)
Inquiry into the Origin of Humanity (Peter N. Gregory)
Integrating Buddhism and HIV Prevention (Sana Loue; Sandra D. Lane)
Intellect and the Khandha Doctrine (Davids, C.A.F. Rhys)
Interpersonal Relations and Suicide Ideation in China (J. Zhang)
Interrelational Existence (Hajime Nakamura)
Introduction: The Lotus Sutra and Process Thought (Reeves, Gene)
Introduction to Early Indian Madhyamika (C. W. Huntington)
Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices (Wilhelm Halbfass)
Investigations of the Self (Joel J. Kupperman)
Investigative Interrelatedness (Mary Carman Rose)
Is Zen Buddhism? (David R. Loy)
Is Zen Buddhism a Philosophy? (Rosemont, Henry)
It is more difficult to crush a Flower (Teschner, George)

J
Japanese Ethics: Beyond Good and Evil (Wargo, Robert J. J.)
Japanese Rationalism, Madhyamika, and Some Uses of Formalism (D. D. Daye) Jatakas and Sanskrit Grammarians (Kielhorn)
Jataka Gathas and Jataka Commentary (M. Winternitz)
Jataka-Tale from the Tibetan (H. Wenzel)
Jayatilleke on a Concept of Meaninglessness in the Pali Nikayas (G. Chatalian)
Jesus and Buddha as Stories? (J. J. Clarke)

K
Karma, Causation, and Divine Intervention (Bruce R. Reichenbach)
Karma of Words (William R. LaFleur)
Karmic A Priori in Indian Philosophy (Karl H. Potter)
Keats and Zen (Richard P. Benton)
King of Siam's Edition of the Pali Tipitaka (Robert Chalmers)
Klesa and Its Bearing on the Yoga Analysis of Mind (Anindita N. Balsev)
Knowledge, Action, and the 'One Buddha-Vehicle' (warren G. frisina)

L
Lack and Transcendence (Loy, David)
Lalitavistara《普曜經》and Sarvastivada (Thomas, E. J.)
Lamp and the Wind in Tibetan Buddhism (Alex Wayman)
Language against Its Own Mystifications (David R. Loy)
Language and Logic in the Lotus Sutra (Sandra A. Wawrytko)
Language and Truth in Hua-Yen Buddhism (Dale Wright)
Law of Karma and the Principle of Causation (Bruce R. Reichenbach)
Learning from the Japanese (Gary L. Chamberlain)
Legal Cosmology of Buddhist Tibet (Yelle, Robert A.)
Letters as Numerals in Pali (L.D. Barnett)
Liberating Oneself from the Absolute Boundary of Language (Peter D. Hershock)
Life and the Fundamental Teachings of the Buddha (Pitt Chin Hui)
Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Real Happiness (Koller, John M.)
Literary Supplement: The Dalai Lama Lights a Candle (Chris Arthur)
Little Buddhas (David Klinghoffer)
Logic of Four Alternatives (K. N. Jayatilleke)
Logic of Place and a Religious World-View (David A. Dilworth)
Logic of the Illogical: Zen and Hegel (Ha Tai Kim)
Logic of the One-Mind Doctrine (David Drake)
Logic of Unity (Hosaku Matsuo)
Logical Form of Catuskoti (四句論證法): A New Solution (R. D. Gunaratne)
Lotus Sutra and Whitehead’s Last Writings (Grange, Joseph)
Loving the World as Our Own Body (David Loy)
Luminary Buddhist Nuns in Contemporary Taiwan (Wei-yi Cheng)

M
Madhyamika Attack on Essentialism (G. C. Nayak)
Madhyamika Philosophy: A New Approach (R. C. Pandeya)
Mahanama in the Pali Literature (Siddhartha, R.)
Mahaparinibbana-sutta and Cullavagga (Finot, Louis)
Mahavira and the Buddha (A. Berriedale Keith)
Mahayana Buddhism and Japanese Thought (Hideo Kishmoto)
Mahayana Buddhism and Whitehead (Masao Abe)
Mahāyāna Deconstruction of Time (David Loy)
Mahayana Haraprasad Sastri (Louis De La Vallee Poussin)
Making Mandalas and Meeting Bodhisattvas (Clive Erricker)
Mandala Architecture (Tracy Cochran)
Manimekhala, a Divinity of the Sea (Sylvain Levi)
Meaning of Vairocana (盧遮那) in Hua-Yen Buddhism (Francis H. Cook)
Means of Penetrating Truth - T’ien-T’ai Theory (沈海燕)
Medicine, Philosophy and Religion (Mary Tiles)
Medieval Japanese Society (Pierre Francois Souyri)
Meditation, Massacre, and Exchange with the Dead in Thailand (Patrice Ladwig)
Meeting the Great Bliss Queen: (Anne Carolyn Klein)
Messengers of Light: Chinese Buddhist Pilgrims in India (Paul Magnin)
Metaphysics of Buddhist Experience (Francis H. Cook)
Metaphysics, Negative Dialectic (Frederick J. Streng)
Microgenesis and Buddhism: The Concept of Momentariness (Jason W. Brown) Mind and Morality in Nineteenth-Century (Janine Anderson Sawada)
Mind as Mirror and the Mirroring of Mind (John Schroeder)
Mind-Only Teaching of Ching-ying Hui-Yuan (淨影慧遠) (Ming-Wood Liu)
Miraculous Stories from the Japanese Buddhist Tradition (Helene Bowen Raddeker)
Mirror and the Source (Dusan Pajin)
Miscellaneous Communications (Fleet, J.F.)
Miscellany Nirvana (Louis De La Valle Poussin)
Modern Buddhist-Christian Dialogue (Paul O. Ingram)
Modern Hindu Exegesis of Mahayana Doctrine (Agehananda Bharati)
Modifications of the Karma Doctrine (E.Washburn Hopkins)
Monks during the Period of Six Dynasties (I) (II) (Liu Yuejin)
Monks in Conversation (L. D. L.)
Moral Consequences of Self-Actualization (James W. Heisig)
Moral Cultivation in Buddhist and Feminist Ethics (Powers and Deane Curtin)
Moral Education in Japan (Klaus Luhmer)
Moral Systems of Confucianism and Buddhism (Bongkil Chung)
Moral Universal (Tu Wei-ming)
Morality or Beyond (Charles Wei-hsun Fu)
Most Non-Russian Republic Tends to Its Buddhist Roots (Judith Matloff)
Motion and Emotion in Medieval Japanese Buddhism (Steven Heine)
Mountains, Monks and Mandalas (Mark Abramson)
Mrs. Rhys Davids' Dialogue with Psychology (Teresina Rowell Havens)
Mula-Madhyamaka-karika《根本中觀頌》(Alex Wayman)
Muslim, Buddhist, American Indian: (Dawn Gibeau)
Munitz Concept of the World: A Buddhist Response (Kenneth K. Inada)
Mystical Passion (Tantric Sex) (Sharon Doyle Driedger)
Mysticism and Logic in Seng-Chao's Thought (Richard H. Robinson)
Mysticism and Modern Perspective (Walter Houston Clark)
Mysticism: Buddhism and Christian (Lawrence S. Cunningham)
Mysticism without Transcendence (Louis Nordstrom)

N
Naga, Yaksini, Buddha (Richard S. Cohen)
Nagarjuna and Analytic Philosophy (Ives Waldo)
Nagarjuna and Deconstruction (Ian W. Mabbett)
Nāgārjuna and the Doctrine of Skillful Means (John Schroeder)
Nagarjuna and Zeno on Motion (I. W. Mabbett)
Nāgārjuna's Fundamental Doctrine of Pratītyasamutpād (Ewing Chinn)
Nagarjuna's Masterpiece (L. Stafford Betty)
Nagarjuna, the Philosophy of the Middle Way (David J. Kalupahana)
Nāgārjuna's Theory of Causality (Jay L Garfield)
Nargarjuna's Twelve Gate Treatise: Translated, with Introductory Essay (A. Fox)
Names, Actualities, and the Emergence (John Makeham)
Namo Buddhaya (Sim Choon Kim)
Naturalistic Principle of Karma (Karl H. Potter)
Nature of Buddhism (Klaus Klostermaier)
Nature of Chan (Zen) Buddhism (Chang, Chen-chi)
Nature and Function of Nagarjuna's Arguments (Richard Hubert Jones)
Nature and Status of Moral Behavior (Richard Hubert Jones)
Necessity and Sufficiency in the Buddha's Causal Schema (Jeffrey D.Watts)
Neo-Confucian Confrontation with Buddhism: (Edward T. Ch’ien)
Nepalese Caitya (Niels Gutschow)
New Light on Buddhism in Medieval India (Waley, Arthur)
New Metaphysics for Eternal Experience (Robert C. Neville)
New Metaphysics for Eternal Experience (Waley, Arthur)
New Poem of Asvaghosa (馬鳴菩薩) (Thomas, F. W.)
New Sanskrit Fragments of the Saddharmapundarika Sutra (M. Kazunobu)
Nietzsche[5] and Buddhism: (James L. Fredericks)
Nietzsche and Buddhism: Prolegomenon to a Comparative Study (Freny Mistry)
Nietzsche and Early Buddhism (Parkes, Graham)
Nirvana and other Buddhist Felicities (Steven Collins)
Nirvana and Buddhist Laymen (B. C. Law)
Nirvana Is Nameless (Chang Chung-Yuan)
No-self Theory (James Giles)
Nonreferential View of Language and Conceptual Thought (C. W. Huntington)
Note on the Early Buddhist Theory of Truth (Mark Siderits)
Notes on the Nagarjunikonda Inscriptions (N. Dutt)
Note on Vajrapani-Indra (金剛手因陀羅) (Sten Konow)
Nothing and Sunyata (Fred Dallmayr)
Nondual Thinking (David Loy)
Nondualism in Indian Philosophy of Language (Ashok Aklujkar)
Nonlogical Character of Zen (Hajime Nakamura)
Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions, (C. Key Chapple)
Nyingma (寧瑪派) School of Tibetan Buddhism (Davidson, Ronald M)

O
Old Buddhist Shrines at Bodh-Gaya Inscriptions (B. M. Barua)
Old Wisdom in the New World (Jan Nattier)
On Buddhist Views of Devouring Time (John M. Koller)
On Being Mindless (Paul Griffiths)
On Chinese Chan in Relation to Taoism (Wu Yi)
On Some Tantric texts studied in Ancient Kambuja (P.C. Bagchi)
On the Authority (Pramanya) of the Buddhist Agamas (Louis V. Poussin)
On the Buddha's Answer to the Silence of God (Robert C. Neville)
On the Buddhacarita of Asvaghosa (馬鳴菩薩) (Sen, Sukumar)
On the Duality of Culture and Nature (David R. Loy)
On the Earliest Path to the Tathagatahood (Biswadeb Mukherjee)
On the Irrationality of Zen (Crowe, C. Lawson)
On the Meaninglessness of Philosophical Questions (Paul Wienpahl)
On the Paradoxical Method (Honolulu)
On the Possibility of Self-transcendence: Philosophical Counseling, Zen and the Psychological Perspective (Rachel B. Blass)
On the Will in Buddhism. (Mrs. Rhys Davids)
On Translating the Term Drstanta (見邊) in Early Buddhist Formal Logic (D. Daye)
On Turning a Zen ear (David Appelbaum)
On Zen Language and Zen Paradoxes (Chung-Ying Cheng)
On Zen Language and Zen Paradoxes (John King-Farlow)
Ontology of the Prajnaparamita (Edward Conze)
Opening the Lotus: A Woman's Guide to Buddhism (Katherine M. Pickar)
Orality writing and Authority in South Asian Buddhism (David McMahan)
Ordination of a Tree (Susan M, Darlington)
Orient or the North (Josef Strzygowski)
Oriental Religious and American Thought: Nineteenth-Century (Carl T. Jackson)
Original Buddhism and Amrta (甘露) (C. A. F. Rhys Davids)
Origins of Buddhism and its Spread to Korea (M.B.)

P
Pali Chronicles (B. C. Law)
Pali Text Society (Shwe Zan Aung and Davids, Rhys)
Pancavimsatisahasrika Prajnaparamita《二萬五千頌般若波羅蜜多經》(S. Watanabe)
Paradox and Enlightenment in Zen Dialogue (Philip J. Bossert)
Paradox of Buddhist Wisdom (Donald W. Mitchell)
Paradox of Causality in Mādhyamika (David Loy)
Paradoxical Logic (Perry, John)
Paramartha (真諦) and Modern Constructivists on Mysticism (Robert K. C. Forman)
Passionate Enlightenment: Women in Tantric Buddhism (Miranda Shaw)
Past Buddhas and Kasyapa in Indian Art (J. Ph. Vogel)
Patna Congress and the Man (C. A. F. Rhys Davids)
Patterns of Chinese Assimilation of Buddhist Thought (Yün-Hua jan)
Peep into the Later Buddhism (B. Bhattacharya)
Personal Identity, minimalism (保守派), and Madhyamaka (Roy W Perrett)
Perspectives in the Study of Chinese Buddhism (E. Zurcher)
Phenomenological-Psychological Aspects (Mark Tatz)
Philosophic turn (Woo-Sung Huh)
Philosophical Implications of the Doctrine of Karma (Wadia, A. R.)
Philosophical Investigation (Yun-hun Jan)
Philosophical Meditations on Zen Buddhism (Dale S. Wright)
Philosophical Non-Egocentrism in Wittgenstein and Candrakirti (R. A. F. Thurman)
Philosophical Reflections (G. C. Nayak)
Philosophical Ruminations on a Buddhist Conundrum (David Burton)
Philosophical Studies (Sinology and lndology) (Torchinov, E. A)
Philosophy and Psychology of the Oriental Mandala (Grace E. Cairns)
Philosophy for an Age of Death (Steven Heine)
Philosophy of the Middle Way (Herman A.L.)
Philosophy of Vasubandhu in Vimsatika《唯識二十論頌》and Trimsika《唯識三十論頌》(Surendra Nath Das Gupta)
Place of Buddhism in Santayana's Moral Philosophy (John Magnus Michelsen)
Place of Faith in Buddhism (N. Dutt)
Place of the Aryasatyas and Pratitya Sam Utpada (N. Dutt)
Planetary Thinking/Planetary Building (Evan Thompson)
Plotinus[6] and Vijnanavada Buddhism (McEvilley, Thomas)
Poems from a thousand years of the Zen tradition (J. P. Seaton)
Poems In The Name of Absolute (Rev. Talihood)
Pointing Finger Kills the Buddha (James Sellman)
Possibility of Oriental Influence: in Hume's Philosophy (Nolan Pliny Jacobson)
Possibility of Religious Pluralism (John Hick)
Practical Spiritual Teachings of a Travelling Buddhist Monk (Donna Seaman)
Practice of Buddhist Economics? Another View (Simon Zadek)
Practice of Looking Deeply in the Mahayana Buddhist Tradition (Thich Nhat Hanh)
Practice of Perfection (Paul Wienpahl)
Practice of Perfection: The Paramitas from a Zen (Penny Spoke)
Practice of Zen (Paul Wienpahl)
Practicing Resurrection (Buddhism) (Van Der Pas Elly)
Prasanga (應成法) and Deconstruction: (Nathan Katz)
Prayers for Peace: India's Tibetan Buddhist Pilgrimage (Cynthia Myers)
Praying for Power (Daniel L. Overmyer)
Pre-Buddhist Meditation System and its Early Modifications (B. Mukherjee)
Predicament of Man in Zen Buddhism and Kierkegaard (Jacobson, Nolan Pliny)
Preliminary Survey of Some Early Buddhist Manuscripts Recently (R. Salomon) Preparing For Something That Never Happens (David R. Loy)
Primitive Buddhist Texts (T. W. Rhys Davids)
Primordial Experience (Lou Nordstrom)
Prisoners of Shangri-La: Tibetan Buddhism and the West (Karma Chameleon)
Prisoners of Shangri-La: Tibetan Buddhism and the West (Donald S Lopez,)
Problem of Induction in Indian Philosophy (Roy W. Perrett)
Problem of Knowledge and the Four Schools (Durgacharan)
Problem of Pure Consciousness: Mysticism and Philosophy (Robert K. C. Forman)
Problems of Religious Pluralism (Jung H. Lee)
Problems of the 'Atyantika' (一闡提) in Kuei-Chi's (窺基) in his PPHV《般若波羅密多心經幽贊》(Ah-yueh Yeh)
Problem of the Historical Nagarjuna Revisited (Ian Mabbett)
Problem of the Self in the Later Nishida and in Sartre (Brian D. Elwood)
Problematic and Conceptual Structure (Daya Krishna)
Problematics of the Buddhist nature of Self (Kenneth K. Inada)
Problematic of Whole-Part (Tao Jiang)
Process Metaphysics and Hua-Yen Buddhism (David Applebaum)
Proto-Madhyamika in the Pali Canon (Luis O. Gomez)
Psychoanalysis, Buddhism and the Person. (Alexandra Ourossoff)
Psychological Perspective (Rachel B. Blass) Original Insights Never Fully Present (Stuart Sargent)
Putative Fascism of the Kyoto School and the Political (Graham Parkes)
Pyrrhonism (懷疑論) and Madhyamika (Thomas McEvilley)

Q
Question of the Importance of Samadhi (Comans, Michael)

R
Range of Buddhist Ontology (Kenneth K. Inada)
Range of Nishida's Early Religious Thought (David Dilworth)
Rationalist Tendency in Modern Buddhist Scholarship (Sungtaek Cho)
Rationality and Mind in Early Buddhism (Mary Bockover)
Rationality, Argumentation and Embarrassment (V. K. Bharadwaja)
Reality of Altruism (Paul Williams)
Realization of Param Bhutakoti (Ultimate Reality-Limit) (Frederick J. Streng)
Recurrent Theme in Chinese Thought (Peter N. Gregory)
Red Thread: Buddhist Approaches to Sexuality (Faure, Bernard)
Reflections on the Attention Given to Mental Construction (Anomnimoty)
Reflections on the Attention Given to Mental Construction (Frederick Streng)
Reflections on the Magic Mirror: (Scot, Morris)
Reflections on World Peace through Peace among Religions (Liu, Shu-hsien)
Reflexivity and Meta-Language Games in Buddhist Causality (Douglas D. Daye) Refutation of the Sāmkhya (數論派) Theory in the Yogācāra (Mikogami, Esho)
Rejection of Humour in Western Thought (John Morreall)
Relationship between Nirvana and Samsara (George Rupp)
Relationships between Traditional and Imported Thought (Tang Yi-Jie)
Relativity in Madhyamika Buddhism and Modern Physics (Victor Mansfield)
Relativity and Transcendence in Sutra of Hui-Neng (慧能) (Chung-Ying Cheng)
Religion and Moral Meaning in Bioethics (C. S. Campbell)
Religion and Society in Tang and Sung China (Patricia Buckley Ebrey)
Religion and the Market (David Loy)
Religion of Consumption: A Buddhist Perspective (Jonathan Watts & David Loy)
Religion of the Market (David Loy)
Religious Belief in a Buddhist Merchant Community (Todd T. Lewis)
Religious Character of the Confucian Tradition (Rodney L. Taylor)
Religious Debate as a Rhetorical Strategy (Mary M. Garrett)
Religious Dimension of Confucianism in Japan: Introducti (Peter Nosco)
Religious Import of Confucian Philosophy (Liu, Sbu-bsien)
Religious Nationalism and Democratic Polity (T. K. Oommen)
Researches in Indian and Buddhist Philosophy (Edwin Gerow)
Researches in Indian and Buddhist Philosophy (Frank J. Hoffman)
Response to Richard Pilgrim's Review of the Logic of Unity (Hosaku Matsuo)
Response to Steven Heine's Review of the Karma of Words (William R. LaFleur)
Rethinking God and Buddhism (Gu, Linyu)
Review of Metaphysics: East & West (Kenneth K. Inada)
Reviews the Article Lack and Transcendence (Carl Becker)
Reviews the Book Buddhism and Language (Jose Ignacio Cabezon)
Reviews the Book Buddhist Hermeneutics, (Griffiths, Paul J.)
Reviews the Book Buddhist Insight (George R. Elder)
Reviews the Book Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist Liberation (Michael G. Barnhart)
Reviews the Book Ethics of Tibet: Bodhisattva Section (Mark Tatz)
Reviews the Book Essential Tibetan Buddhism (Digby Anderson)
Reviews the Book Foundations of Tien-Tai Philosophy (Paul Loren Swanson)
Reviews the Book Madhyamika Thought in China (Ming-Wood Liu)
Reviews the Book 'Mantra', Edited by Harvey, P. (Kohn, Richard J.)
Review the Book Nagajuna: The Philosophy of the Middle Way (D. J. Kalupahana)
Reviews the Book the Buddha Within (HookHam, S.K.)
Revival of Tibet-style Buddhism Worries China (S.T.)
Riddle of the First Buddhist Council - A Retrospection (B. Mukherjee)
Roots of Zen Buddhism (Hsueh-Li Cheng)
Royal Patrons of the University of Nalanda (H. Heras, S.J., M.A.)

S
Saddharmapundarika and Sunyata Thought (Kajiyama, Yuichi)
Saddharmapundarikasutra in Chinese History (Yang Zengwen)
Salvation by Paradox: On Zen and Zen-Like Thought (Scharfstein, Ben-Ami)
Samkara's Arguments against the Buddhist (Daniel H. H. Ingalls)
Samkara on the Question: Whose is Avidya (Daniel H. H. Ingalls)
Sandhabhasa (Vidhushekhara Bhattacharya)
Sarvastivada (David Bastow)
Sautrantika Arguments (A. Charlene McDermott)
Saving Time a Buddhist Perspective on the End (David R. Loy)
Schopenauer and Buddhism (Peter Abelson)
Scripture on the Ten Kings and the Making of Purgatory (Charles D. Orzech)
Sects of the Buddhists (Davids. T. W. Rhys)
Secularization of Public Administration (Thomas D. Lynch; Richard Omdal)
Seeking the Religious Roots of Pluralism (Robert Thurman)
Selected Bibliography on Ch'an Buddhism in China (Robert B. Zeuschner)
Self-Awakening and Faith-Zen and Christianity (Masao Abe)
Self in Medieval Japanese Buddhism (Kiyotaka Kimura)
Self-Reflection in the San-Lun Tradition (Alan Fox)
Seng-Chao (僧肇) and the Madhyamika Way of Refutation (Ming-Wood Liu)
Setup, Punch Line, and the Mind-Body Problem (Brook Ziporyn)
Shame And Social Phobia: A Transcultural viewpoint (Okano K)
Shinran's (親鸞) Response to Tendai (Alfred Bloom)
Short Account of the Principal Religious Ceremonies Observed (C. J. R. Mesurier)
Short Account of the Wandering Teachers at the Time of the Buddha (B. C. Law)
Short History of Buddhism (Eric Glasgow)
Siamese Edition of Buddhist Scriptures (C. R. Lanman)
Sickness, Healing, and Religious Vocation (Nirmala S. Salgado)
Significance of Paradoxical Language in Hua-Yen Buddhism (Dale S. Wright)
Silence of the Buddha (Troy Wilson Organ)
Sinitic Speculations on Buddha-Nature (Whalen Lai)
Sinitic Understanding of Two Truths Theory (Whalen W. Lai)
Skepticism and Indian Philosophy (Dipankar Chatterjee)
Skepticism, Ordinary Language and Zen Buddhism (Dick Garner)
Skill-in-means and the Buddhism of Tao-Sheng (David C. Yu)
So-Called Mahapadana《大緣經》(L. A. Waddell)
Social Life of Monks and Nuns (Hao Chun-Wen)
Social Responsibility, Sex change, and Salvation (Lucinda Joy Peach)
Social Self in Zen and American Pragmatism (Barry D. Steben)
Solution to the Paradox of Desire in Buddhism (A. L. Herman)
Some Aspects of the Free-Will Question in the Nikayas (Luis O. Gomez)
Some Buddhist and Hindu Concepts of Intellect-Will (Robinson, Richard H.)
Some Buddhist Responses to New-Confucianism (Richard H. Robinson)
Some Critical Aspects (J. S. Speyer)
Some Impressions of the Buddha (Douglas C, Stenerson)
Some Logical Aspects of Nagarjuna's System (Richard H. Robinson)
Some Methodological Approaches to the Unexplained Points (Richard H. Robinson)
Some Notes on Perceptions of Pratitya-Samutpada in China (Whalen Lai)
Some Notes on the Tattvasamgraha《金剛頂經》(Louis de la Vallee Poussin)
Some Phenomenological Reflections (Kennard Lipman)
Some Problems in Interpretation (David Putney)
Soul as an Image of Nirvana (Edward Conze)
Soul-Theory in Buddhism (C.A.F. Rhys Davids)
Sovereign All-Creating Mind (E. K. Neumaier-Dargyay)
Spirits in a Material World (Pravit Rojanaphruk)
Spirits of the Dead (Takeda John)
Spiritual inquiry in Buddhism (Fenner, Peter)
Spiritual Origins of the West: A Lack Perspective (David Loy)
Spiritual Roots of Civil Society (David R. Loy)
Spiritual Roots of Modernity (David R. Loy)
Spurious Parallels to Buddhist Philosophy (Edward Conze)
Sri Lanka's Ethnic Conflict (Marshall R. Singer)
State and the Buddhist Sangha (Kychanov, Evgenij I.)
Status of the Individual in Theravada Buddhism (G. P. Malalasekera)
Storage Consciousness (Soga, Ryojin)
Structural Violence and Spirituality (Rothberg, Donald)
Structure of Consciousness in Purported Trilogy (Diana Y. Paul)
Struggle to Contextualize Photographic Images (Lisa M. Skow)
Student-Teacher Relationship: A Buddhist Perspective (Robert P. Craig)
Studies in Buddhist Dogma (Louis De La Vallee Poussin)
Studies in Early Buddhist Histriography (Ghoshal, U.N.)
Studies in the Divyayadana (Ware, James R.)
Study of Buddhism (J. W. de Jong)
Study of Svatantrika (自立論證派) (Donald S. Lopez)
Study of Tao Yuan-Ting's Nature Poetry (Angela Jung Palandri)
Study of the Digha Nikaya of the Suttapitaka the Young East (Anonimity)
Study of the Philosophical and Religious Elements in the Red Chamber Dream (紅樓夢) (W. Pachow)
Study on the I-Pu-Tsung-Lun-Lun《異部宗輪論》(Tao-Wei Liang)
Study on the Record of Meditation on the Mind and Awakening (Tao-Wei Liang)
Stupa and Tomb (B. M. Barua)
Sunyata, Textualism, and Incommensurability (Michael G. Barnhart)
Sunyavada: A Reinterprertation (Harsh Narain)
Supposed Greek Sculpture at Mathura (F. S. Growse)
Suramgama-samadhi-sutra《首楞嚴三昧經》(Etienne Lamotte)
Suzuki Daisetz as Regional Ontologist: Critical (Dilworth, David A.)
Svabhavahetu (自証証因) in Dharmakirti's Logic (Kisor Kumar Chakrabarti)
Swedenborg[7]: Buddha of the North. (D. T. Suzuki)
Symbolism and Death in Jung and Zen Buddhism (John Steffney)
Symbols, Icons and Stupas (Perrett, Roy W.)
Symposium on Buddhism and Modern Western Thought (Peacocke, John)
Systems Philosophy as a Hermeneutic for Buddhist Teachings (Joanna Rogers Macy)

T
Tai Xu: To Renew Buddhism and Save the Modern World (Justin R. Ritzinger)
Tantric Argument: (Lawrence, David)
Tantric Distinction and Compassion (Bernis)
Tao-Sheng's (道生) Commentary on the Lotus Sutra: (Young-he Kim)
Tathagata. (Chalmers, Robert)
Temples, Sangha Reform and Social Change (Richard A. O'Connor)
Thai Buddhism: A Conversation with Sulak Sivaraksa (Anonimity)
Thai Buddhist Accounts of Male Homosexuality (Peter Anthony Jackson)
Thai Cremation Volumes (Grant A. Olson)
Theory of Oriental Aesthetics: A Prolegomenon (Kenneth K. Inada)
Therapy and Meditation (Mark Epstein)
Therapeutic Psychology of the Tibetan Book of the Dead (Robert Wicks)
Theravada Buddhism: (R. F. Gombrich.)
Theravada Buddhism and Modernization (Balkrishna Givind Gokhale)
There is No Paradox of Desire in Buddhism (Wayne Alt)
There is No Paradox of Desire in Buddhism (John Visvader)
Thinking between Worlds Meditative Reason (Ashok K. Gangadean)
Three Approaches to Authentic Existence (Frederick J. Streng)
T'ien-T'ai Chih-I's (天台智顗) Theory of Buddha Nature: A Realistic and Humanistic (釋恆清)
Time and Emptiness in the Chao-Lun (僧肇) (Michael Berman)
Time and Space in Chinese Narrative Paintings (Pao-chen Chen)
Time and Temporality--A Buddhist Approach (Kenneth K. Inada)
Tibetan Buddhism: A Perspective (William S. Weedon)
Tibetan Buddhism and the Resolution of Grief (Robert Goss)
Tibetan Buddhist Medicine: A Transcultural Nursing Experience (S. S. Begley)
Tibetan Buddhist Pointers on Religious Education (Victoria Urubshurow)
Tibetan Buddhist Shrine Rises in California Hills (Daniel, Sneider)
Tokharian Pratimoksa Fragment Sylvain Levi.
Topics on Being and Logical Reasoning (Richard S. Y. Chi)
Toward a Buddhist Social Ethics (Tavivat, Puntarigvivat)
Towards a Philosophy of Buddhist Religion (Frank J. Hoffman)
Toward Dualism: The Nyaya-Vaisesika (勝論派) Way (Chakrabarti, Kisor Kumar)
Tracking the Discontinuity of Perception (David Appelbaum and Ingrid Tur)
Tradition about the Corporal Relics of Buddha (J. F. Fleet)
Tradition and Development (Kang-Yuan Sung)
Traditional Definitions of the Term Dhamma (John Ross Carter)
Transcendence East and West (David R. Loy)
Transference of Merit in Ceylonese Buddhism (G. P. Malalasekera)
Transforming Our Suffering (Thich Nhat Hanh)
Transformations in Buddhism in Tibet (Kenneth Chen)
Transformation of Consciousness into Wisdom (Ronald Epstein)
Transformation of Buddhism in China (Wing-Tsit Chan)
Transformations of 'Emptiness' (Gregory K. Ornatowski)
Translation of the Samdhinirmocana Sutra (John Powers)
Translation of the Term 'Samskara' (Ven. Hsing-kong)
Translation: The world of Tibetan Buddhism (Geshe Thupten Jinpa)
Transmetaphysical Thinking in Heidegger and Zen Buddhism (John Steffney)
Transmission of the Lamp: Early Masters. (Sohaku Ogata)
Tree and Serpent Worship (S. Beal)
True Dharma Doctrine and the Bodhisattva Ideal (Aaron K. Koseki)
Trustworthiness of the Mahavamsa (Wilhelm Geiger)
Truth and Zen (T. P. Kasulis)
Tso-Ch'an (聖嚴法師)
Tsung-Mi[8](宗密) and the Single Word 'Awareness' (chih) (Peter N. Gregory)
Tsung-Mi and the Sinification of Buddhism (T. Griffith Foulk)
Tsung-Mi's Questions Regarding the Confucian Absolute (Yun-hua Jan)
Two Chinese Philosophers (A. C. Graham)
Two Main Streams of Thought in Yogacara Philosophy (Yoshifumi Ueda)
Two Nirvanadhatus According to the Vibhasa (Louis de la Vallee Poussin)
Two Notes on the Ancient Geography of India (J. Ph. Vogel)
Two Paradigms of Humanistic Buddhist Movements (George D. Bond)
Two Strains in Buddhist Causality (Kenneth K. Inada)
Two Traditions of India - Truth and Silence (Alex Wayman)
Two Types of Saving Knowledge in the Pali Suttas (Donald K. Swearer)

U
Uddyotakara (正理學派), a Contemporary of Dharmakirti (S. C. Vidyabhusana)
Ultimate Ground of Buddhist Purification (Kenneth K. Inada)
Understanding Eastern Philosophy (Ray Billington)
Understanding Nagarjuna's Catuskoti (四句論證法) (R. D. Gunaratne)
Understanding of Karma in Early Chan Buddhism (Robert Zeuschner)
Understanding of Mind in the Northern Line of Chan (Robert B. Zeuschner)
Unity of Three Truths and Three Forms of Creativity (Cheng, Chung-Ying)
Universal Attitude of Shinto as Expressed (Willis Stoesz)
Untying the Knots in Buddhism: Selected Essays (Wayman, Alex)
Uses of Dialogues and Moral Understanding (Cua, A. S.)
Use of Signs in T'ien-T'ai Buddhism (沈海燕)
Usnisa-Siraskata (頂髻相) in the Early Buddha Images of India (J. N. Banerjea)

V
Vadavidhi《論軌》(Giuseppe Tucci)
Vasubandhu and the Vadavidhi《論軌》(H. R. Rangaswamy Iyengar)
Vasubandhu on the Vatsiputriyas' (犢子部) Fire-fuel Analogy (James Duerlinger)
Vasubandhu's 'Treatise on the Three Natures' (Garfield, Jay L)
Verbal Community Reinforcement (Muzai No Nanase)
Verses Delineating the Eight Consciousnesses (Tripitaka)
Vietnamese Humanism (Nguyen Dang Thuc)
Vietnamese Mode of Self-Reference (Steven W. Laycock)
Vijnaptimatrata and the Abhidharma (King, Richard)
Vijnaptimatratasiddhi Sastra《成唯識論》Ch'eng Wei-Shih Lun (韋達)
Vile Destructionists and the Sacred Tooth (Kaytu Nilar)
Voice of the Buddha (Gwendolyn Bays)

W
Wake Up and Cook: Kitchen Buddhism (Carole Tonkinson)
Was Early Buddhism Influenced by the Upanisads? (Pratap Chandra)
War Surgery Continues In Sri Lanka (Stevenson, P.)
Way of the Lotus (A. L. Herman)
Wayward Mysticism of Alan Watts (Alan W. Watts)
We must learn to be Leaves (River, Jess)
Webbed Fingers of Buddha (Banerjea, Nath Jithndra)
Wei-Wu-Wei (為無為): Nondual Action (David Loy)
Welcome to the Mind-Body Revolution (Marc Barasch)
What in Brief is Buddhism? (Ananda W. P. Guruge)
What is a Birth astride a Grave? (John L. Kundert-Gibbs)
What is living and what is Dead Indian Philosophy (Devaraja, N.K.)
Whitehead's 'Actual Entity' and the Buddha's Anatman (Kenneth K. Inada)
Whitehead's Differences from Buddhism (Hartshorne, Charles)
Whitehead, Madhyamika, and the Prajnaparamita (Robert F. Olson)
What is the 'Logic' in Buddhist Logic? (R. Lance Factor)
What is the Zen Master Talking About? (Stewart W. Holmes)
What's Wrong with Being and Time: A Buddhist Critique (David Loy)
When Christianity & Buddhism Meet (John W. Healey)
Where Text Meets Flesh (James A. Benn)
Who is arguing about the Cat? (Douglas K. Mikkelson)
Who Understands the Four Alternatives of the Buddhist Texts? (Alex Wayman)
Whole Body, not Heart, as Seat of Consciousness (Suwands H. J. Sugunasiri)
Why Buddhas Can't Remember their Previous Lives (Paul J. Griffiths)
Why Buddhism Baffles the West (Wilson Quarterly)
William James and Yogacara Philosophy (Miranda Shaw)
Wittgenstein[9] and Nagarjuna's Paradox (Tyson Anderson)
Wittgenstein and Zen Buddhism (Hudson, H.)
Women as Sacred Custodians of the Earth (Alaine Lowe)
Women's Role in Early Buddhism (Cornelia Dimmit)
Word Avidya (無明) (Whalen Lai)
Work as a Spiritual Practice (Lewis Richmond)
Working Emptiness (Newman Robert Glass)
World and the Individual in Chinese Metaphysics (Thome H. Fang)
World and the Individual in Mahayana Buddhist Philosophy (Yoshifumi Ueda)
Worldliness of Buddhism (Donald K. Swearer)
Writings on Socially Engaged Buddhism (Fred Eppsteiner)

X
Xuan-Zang (玄奘): A Buddhist Pilgrim on the Silk Road (Edward H. Kaplan)

Y
Yogacara and Madhyamika Interpretation (Ming-Wood Liu)
Yogacara Buddhism and Husserl (M. J. Larrabee)

Z
Zen Action/Zen Person (Thomas P. Kasulis)
Zen: A Reply to Hu Shih (D. T. Suzuki)
Zen: A Reply to Van Meter Ames (D. T. Suzuki)
Zen and Buddhism (Masao Abe)
Zen and Pragmatism (實用主義) - A Reply (Comment and Disussion) (D. T. Suzuki)
Zen and Pragmatism (Van Meter Ames)
Zen and Taoism Common and Uncommon Grounds (Kenneth Inada)
Zen and the Art of Lifestyle Maintenance (G. Beato)
Zen and the Art of Teamwork (Lieber, Ron; Rao, Rajiv M.)
Zen and the Brain (James H. Austin, M. D.)
Zen and American Philosophy (Van Meter Ames)
Zen and Karma (Louis Nordstrom)
Zen and Western Psychotherapy (Sandra A. Wawrytko)
Zen in the Art of Troubleshooting. (Terry Ballard)
Zen Lit (Will Blythe)
Zen of Eating (Kabatznick, Ronna)
Zens & Zensibility (Grossberger, Lewis)
Zeno and Nagarjuna on Motion (Mark Siderits)
Zhuangzi (莊子) and Nagarjuna on the Truth of No Truth (David Loy)

Notes:
[1] Whitehead: 英國邏輯學家、數學家、哲學家。1861年2月15日生於拉姆斯蓋特，1947年12月30日逝世。1884年畢業於劍橋大學三一學院，1905年獲科學博士學位。先後在三一學院、倫敦大學學院、哈佛大學等校任教授。被選為英國皇家學會會員。
[2] Heraclitus: 希臘哲學家，他堅持鬥爭和變化是宇宙的自然狀態的觀點。
[3] Huxley: (1894-1963) 英國作家。他最著名的作品美麗的新世界 (1932年) 描繪了以科學方式組織的理想社會的恐怖情景
[4] 德國數學家、自然科學家、哲學家。1646年7月1日生於萊比錫，1716年11月14日卒於漢諾威。父親是萊比錫大學教授，去世後留下豐富藏書，為他早年學習創造良好條件。1661年入萊比錫大學，學習哲學、修辭學、數學及多種語言，後選擇法學。1666年轉學於阿爾特多夫大學，次年獲博士學位。1672年到過巴黎，結識許多著名學者。1676年出任漢諾威公爵顧問及圖書館館長，後一直在那裡任過多種官職，直至逝去。
[5] 尼采：(1844-1900) 德國哲學家，論斷基督教強調的來生說使它的信徒們不能很好地處理現世的生活。他堅持認為理想化的人類，超人哲學能夠創造性地引導情感而不被它們所壓制。他的著作包括善與惡的彼岸 (1886年)和查拉圖斯特拉如是說 (1883-1892年)。
[6] Plotinus: 是古希臘文化末期最重要的哲學流派，並對西方中世紀中的基督教神學產生了重大影響。該流派主要基於柏拉圖的學說，再加上斯多葛學派、亞里斯多德的思想融合為一個體系。但在許多地方進行了新的詮釋。
[7] Swedenborg: (1688-1772) 瑞典科學家及神學家，他的通靈幻象及著作啟發他的信徒們在他死後建立了新耶路撒冷教會。
[8] 中國唐代僧人，華嚴宗五祖，又是禪宗荷澤系禪師。
[9] Wittgenstein (1889-1951)，是一位著名且重要的語言哲學家，出生在維也納的猶太人家庭。

Buddhist Story that has a Psychological Significance Found in Pali Sources and Point out the Therapeutic and Counseling Techniques Used in That Story

2007-12-20T01:03:00.000-08:00

I. Introduction

Today we live in a scientific age in which almost every aspect of our lives has been affected by science. Since the scientific revolution during the seventeenth century, science has continued to have a vast influence on what we think and do. Modern scientific thought is closer to the ancient beliefs of Buddhism, which holds to an infinite universe, with no beginning and no end. As K. N. Jayatilleke states, the early Buddhists' conception of the cosmos is in essence, similar to the modern conception of the universe.[1] Whenever, we step into a new age or new geographical area we ask ourselves, 'How can we put Buddhist principles of therapy and counseling into practice to face the present situation?' This question is based on the presumption that the Buddhist principles should be changed from place to place and time to time. K. Sri Dhammananda mentioned, religion without science is crippled, while science without religion is blind.[2] To be sure, Buddhism does not deny modern scientific progress, but it tries to describe the truths of the universal phenomenon. The scientific spirit can be found in the Buddha's approach to spiritual truth.

Currently, there are more than fifty types of therapy.[3] Therapy may address specific forms of diagnosable mental illness, or everyday problems in relationships or meeting personal goals. Treatment of everyday problems is more often referred to as counseling, but the term is sometimes used interchangeably with 'psychotherapy'. In most countries, however, psychotherapists must be trained, certified, and licensed, with a range of different certification and licensing requirements enforced internationally. Psychotherapists may be psychologists, social workers, marriage-family therapists, trained nurses, psychiatrists, psychoanalysts, mental health counselors, school counselors or professionals of other mental health disciplines.

In the context of modern psychology the word therapy is often used in the restricted sense of techniques for treating mental illness. But during the last few decades the framework of therapy has widened, the narrow gap between the mentally sick and the healthy has been questioned, whole societies have sometimes been sick and psychologists like Fromm refer to the pathology of normalcy, and increasing numbers fall prey to the milder forms of behavior disorders.[4] Padmasiri De Silva has mentioned the psychology of Buddhism is different from that of any field of psychological enquiry pursued for its own sake, for the Buddha pursued theoretical questions only when they had a bearing on the predicament of the suffering man. The psychology of Buddhism is primarily designed to answer the way out of it. The therapeutic basis of the psychology of Buddhism provides interesting analogies to the philosophy of Buddhism.[5] In this paper I wish to focus on the Ambalatthika-Rahulovadasutta, and make a relationship and point up what is the standpoint of the ideal in Buddhist therapy and counseling, and compare it with Western therapy and counseling.

II. A Story of the Ambalatthika-Rahulovadasutta

The story below is quoted from the Ambalatthika-Rahulovadasutta in the Majjhima Nikaya.

What do you think about this, Rahula? What is the purpose of a mirror?
Its purpose is reflection, revered sir.
Even so, Rahula, a deed is to be done with the body after repeated reflection; a deed is to be done with speech…with the mind after repeated reflection.
If you, Rahula, are desirous of doing a deed with the body, you should reflect on that deed of your body, thus: 'That deed which I am desirous of doing with the body is a deed of my body that might conduce to the harm of self and that might conduce to the harm of others and that might conduce to the harm of both; this deed of body is unskilled, its yield is anguish, its result is anguish.'
If you, Rahula, reflecting thus, should find, 'That deed which I am desirous of doing with the body that would conduce to the harm of self and to the harm of others and to the harm of both; this deed of body is unskilled, its yield is anguish, its result is anguish' – a deed of body like this, Rahula, is certainly not to be done by you.
But if you, Rahula, while reflecting thus, should find, 'That deed which I am desirous of doing with the body is a deed of my body that would conduce neither to the harm of self nor to the harm of others nor to the harm of both; this deed of body is skilled, its yield is happy, its result is happy' – a deed of body like this, Rahula, may be by you.[6]

III. Evaluation of the events of story in psychological perspective

In the story above, and to imply the Buddhist view, 'mirror' is not only used to look at oneself but it is used to reflect our outward and inward form. The mirror of Buddhism, however, reveals the aspect of our lives. Mirrors, which function by virtue of the laws of light and reflection, are a product of human wisdom. Even though people may make up their faces, they tend to neglect to polish their lives. While they quickly wash off a stain from their faces, they remain unconcerned about stains in their behaviors. And Buddhism recognizes that human beings have two types of diseases, those of the body and those of the mind. In the Roga Sutta of the Anggutara Nikaya, Buddha has mentioned:
There are two types of illnesses. What are they? Bodily illness and mental illnesses, one can enjoy freedom from physical illness for a year or two, or even a hundred years or more. But, rare in this world are those who enjoy freedom from mental illness even for a moment, except those who are free from mental defilements.

Recently, our society seems to view therapy as a matter of fixing what's broken. We know it instead as a process that enhances our strengths. Therapy can uncover what's been hidden, rebalancing the psyche by paying attention to areas we normally ignore. In presence-oriented psychotherapy we practice comprising whatever arises within, with calm awareness and clear intention. In the process, we experience joy, grief, anger, delight, pain, and/or energy – the full emotional spectrum. And we find a deeper strength, the strength of a steady presence that allows the emotions to flow according to their own ever-changing nature. Learning to trust this flow, understanding that our experience will continue for as long as we're in this body, we learn to trust ourselves, and our own ability to stay with ourselves fully through whatever arises. Now we have to ask ourselves, how we can see our self in the mirror. What are the treatments, given in the Buddhist point of view to relate our lives?

Buddha's approach was, from the beginning, therapeutic in nature. Thus the central teachings known as the Four Noble Truths were structured in a way which paralleled the medical practice in the Buddha's day: (I) identify a disease (dukkha), (II) specify its cause (dukkha samudaya), (III) determine if the disease is curable (dukkha nirodha), (IV) outline the method of cure (dukkha nirodha gamini patipada).
I. Dukkha – suffering and unsatisfactoriness – is a pervasive feature of life;
II. But it has identifiable causes, such as demanding desires, based on a misperception of the nature of reality;
III. It can be overcome – in the experience of nirvana, by finally destroying these causes;
IV. This can be accomplished by following the Noble Eightfold Path: the 'middle way' which systematically develops moral virtue (right speech, action and livelihood), meditative calming (right effort, mindfulness and concentration) and insight based on this (right understanding and thought). The three aspects of the path work, respectively, on three aspects of one's character:
1. Moral virtue works on bodily and verbal conduct, so as to act in a more morally wholesome, virtuous way; avoiding intentional harm to any being, and practicing generosity.
2. Meditative calming acts on the way one's citta (mind) or heart-works.
3. Insight works on one's understand of the nature of reality.

It seems that what can be called the discovery of a Buddha is just these Four Noble Truths. This is the typical teaching of the Buddha's of all ages, peculiar to them and no one else. In Samyutta Nikaya Buddha addressed the monks:
What do you think, monks, which are the more numerous, just this handful of simsapa[7] leaves I have here, or those in the grove overhead?
Very few in number, lord, are the leaves in the handful gathered up by the exalted one; much more in number are those in the grove overhead.
Just so, monks, much more in number are those I have found out, but not revealed; and why, monks, have I not revealed them?
Because they are not concerned with profit, they are not rudiments of the holy life; they conduce not to revulsion, to dispassion, to cessation, to tranquility, to full understanding, to the perfect wisdom, to Nibbana. That is why I have not revealed them.
And what is it, monks that I have revealed?
Just that this is ill.
This is the arising of ill.
This is the ceasing of ill.
This is the practice that leads to the ceasing of ill, and why so?
Because, monks, this is concerned with profit. It is the rudiments of the holy life. It does conduce to revulsion, to dispassion, to cessation, to tranquility, to full understanding, to the perfect wisdom,[and] it does conduce to Nibbana. Therefore have I revealed it?[8]

Actually, the Buddha's statement is a very accurate, precise teaching. It is the perfect teaching, but people cannot understand it. They tend to misunderstand and to think it comes from an egoism, materialism, nihilism, atheism, and 'world-renunciation'. Because of this, people are always interpreting everything from their egos. Anywhere, according to Buddhism we can see three levels of the definition of suffering:
1. Birth is suffering, ageing is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering, sorrow and lamentation, pain, grief and despair are suffering.
2. Association with the unpleasant is suffering, dissociation from the pleasant is suffering, not to get what one wants is suffering.
3. The five aggregates of grasping are suffering. I. Material form as an aggregate of grasping. II. Feeling as an aggregate of grasping. III. Perception as an aggregate of grasping. IV. Volitional activity as an aggregate of grasping. V. Consciousness as an aggregate of grasping.[9]

According to the above mentioned, we know that the Four Noble Truths are the most fundamental Buddhist teachings; they appear many times throughout the most ancient Buddhist texts, the Pali Canon and even in Mahayana texts. They are the truths the Buddha realized during his enlightenment experience. The Four Noble Truths are also very practical. They have everything to do with the present moment, and how we relate to it. I have provided several ideals of skills, and show how the Four Noble Truths are connected with Buddhist therapy, and compared with Western therapy, as follows:

Buddhist Treatment:
Four Noble Truth = Therapy / Counseling
Suffering = See the problem
Aarising of suffering = How the problem arose
Cessation of suffering = Solution to the problem
Path to cessation to suffering = Path to the solution

Nevertheless, in Western therapies treatment is mostly by using medicine. For instance, in the 1950s antidepressant drugs were discovered and used to combat depression. It became the main treatment for clinical depression by 1980s. By this time, side by side with drug treatment, psychological treatment was also attempted by adopting behavioral approaches, cognitive therapy and interpersonal therapy. The biggest problem about depression is its tendency to recur with increasing frequency.[10] Somatic therapy has been interpreted by R. K. R. Salokangas. The past three decades of treatment for psychotic patients on first admission is in three phases:
1. 1949～1958, the period of emphasis on shock therapies;
2. 1959～1968, the era of neuroleptices;
3. 1969 to the present, intensive out patient treatment.[11]

However, R. M. Fraser and I. B. Glass's use of electroshock on elderly patients has stirred controversy not only about this use, but also about unilateral versus bilateral electrode placement, which is a controversy, as well, in the treatment of younger patients. They studied the problem because depression and suicide increase with age.[12] Nevertheless, in Buddhism, as I mentioned above, using a mirror is to reflect our own behavior, good conduct, and not do harm to each other. Using the Four Noble Truths to see our problem, and how the problem arose, then, the solution, and finally the path to the solution ensures the ideal person. Unlike the Western view of therapy to build up the self simply does not do justice to what we actually seek from the therapeutic process?[13]

Now, we can see what are the differences between Buddhist and Western therapy treatment. It is not hard to see that the emphasis in Buddhism, however, is on the nature of our experience. Buddhism is very much concerned with both mind and body (good behaviors) analysis because Buddhism is an empirical phenomenon. All of the Four Noble Truths are equally valuable and noble. It is not the suffering that is noble but the truth. The truth, however, is not a metaphysical entity but an empirical process. Just like a doctor should understand an illness before recommending any treatment one should understand suffering. The illness, the Buddha refers to, is a particular kind of suffering, and there is nothing metaphysical about it. We all experience it. However, Buddhism does not teach that life is a wretched experience, just that the pleasures we do get from objects or people are impermanent and thus the end of pleasure is suffering. This is considered to be such a fundamental truth in Buddhism that it is the first of the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism. Suffering in life includes birth, aging, illness, death, separation from loved ones, association with unpleasant persons, the frustration of one's desires, and the suffering caused by the five aggregates.

IV. Conclusion

Finally, it is unquestionably the value and utility of techniques and approaches found in religious and spiritual traditions, in the context of therapy and counseling, which are recognized by many present-day in practitioners. Buddhism has been used particularly and widely in this way. In light of this point, several present-day therapy settings have used Buddhist techniques and ideas, and the reports available suggest a positive and fruitful outcome. For example, Kishimoto has reported on the use of Zen Buddhist techniques for neurotic patients in Japan, and there are reports on the use of Early Buddhist techniques with groups of alcoholics and drug addicts in Kandy, Sri Lanka.[14] On the other hand, in recent times, there are several Western psychiatrists and researchers who have put the four foundations of mindfulness into practice, such as:
1. Christopher K. Germer. "Mindfulness and Psychotherapy."

2. Georg H. Eifert. "Acceptance & Commitment Therapy for Anxiety Disorders: A Practitioner's Treatment Guide to Using Mindfulness, Acceptance, and Values-Based Behavior Change Strategies."

3. Jan Kabat Zinn. "Full Catastrophe Living: Using the Wisdom of Your Body and Mind to Face Stress, Pain, and Illness"; "Coming to Our Senses: Healing Ourselves and the World Through Mindfulness"; "Wherever You Go, There You Are: Mindfulness Meditation in Everyday Life."

4. Jeffrey Brantley. "Calming Your Anxious Mind: How Mindfulness and Compassion Can Free You from Anxiety, Fear, and Panic."

5. John R. McQuaid. "Peaceful Mind: Using Mindfulness and Cognitive Behavioral Psychology to Overcome Depression."

6. M. D. Mark Epstein. "Going to Pieces without Falling Apart a Buddhist Perspective on Wholeness."

7. Olaf G. Deatherage. "Mindfulness Meditation as Psychotherapy."

8. Ruth A. Baer. "Mindfulness-Based Treatment Approaches: Clinician's Guide to Evidence Base and Applications (Practical Resources for the Mental Health Professional)."

9. Steven C. Hayes. "Mindfulness and Acceptance: Expanding the Cognitive-Behavioral Tradition."

10. Zindel V. Segal, J. Mark G. Williams, and John D. Teasdale. "Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Depression: A New Approach to Preventing Relapse", and so on.

As a result, with the above mentioned, Buddhist treatment techniques are widespread propagation and used in Western counties in the present-day and with no hesitation, I suppose that it will be practiced in the future.

References:
- "Buddhism and counseling." British Journal of Guidance & Counselling Vol. 21, No.1 Jan.1993, pp. 30～34.

- Corsini, J. Raymond. (ed) (1994) Encyclopedia of Psychology. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

- de Silva, Padmasiri. (1991) An Introduction to Buddhism Psychology. London: Macmillan Academic and Professional Ltd.

- Horner, I. B. (2004) The Collection of the Middle Length Saying (Majjhima-Nikaya). Vol. II. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited. (First Indian Edition)

- Jayatilleke, K. N. (2000) The Message of the Buddha. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.

- Mark Epstein, M. D. (1999) "Going to Pieces without Falling Apart a Buddhist Perspective on Wholeness." New York: Broadway Books.

- Premasiri, P. D. (2007) "Disease and Therapy from the Buddhist Perspective." Buddhist Studies in Honour of Venerable Kirindigalle Dhammaratana. Colombo: Sridevi Printers (Pvt.) Ltd. pp. 177～189.

- Ratnayaka, Sumana. (2003) "An introduction to Buddhist psychology and psychotherapy" Symposium on Buddhist studies. UK: Thames Meditation Society. pp. 82～111.

- Ven. K. Sri Dhammananda. (1998) What Buddhists Believe. Malaysia: Buddhist Missionary Society.

- Woodward, F. L. (2005) The Book of the Kindred sayings (Samyutta-Nikaya). Vol. V. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited. (First Indian Edition)

Notes:
[1] The Message of the Buddha. pp.90～98.
[2] What Buddhists Believe. p.269.
[3] For details see Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
[4] An Introduction to Buddhism Psychology. p.9
[5] Ibid. p.8
[6] Majjhima Nikaya. Vol. II, pp. 88～89
[7] Leaves from the tree Dalbergia Sisu or the Asoka tree.
[8] Samyutta Nikaya. Vol. V, p.370
[9] Samyutta Nikaya. Vol. V, p.357
[10] Disease and Therapy from the Buddhist Perspective. pp. 182～183
[11] Encyclopedia of Psychology. p. 529
[12] Ibid.
[13] Going to Pieces Without Falling Apart a Buddhist Perspective on Wholeness. p. xix
[14] Buddhism and Counseling. p.30

An Unromantic Life of the Buddha Related in the "Mahaparinibbana Sutta"

2007-12-19T08:07:00.000-08:00

Gautama Buddha, the founder of what came to be known as Buddhism, on the full moon day of May, in the year 563 B.C.[1] He was born in the Lumbini Park at Kapilavatthu, on the Indian borders of present Nepal, a noble prince who was destined to be the greatest religious teacher of the world. His personal name was Siddhartha, and family name Gotama. The name Buddha was given to him after he attained enlightenment and realized the truth. It means the awakened or the enlightened one. He generally called himself the Tathagata, while his followers called him Bhagava, the Blessed One. Others spoke of him as Gotama or Sakyamuni. He was born a prince who seemed to have everything. He had a luxurious cultivation and his family was of pure descent on both sides. He was the successor to the throne, inspiring trust, splendid and gifted with great beauty of complexion and fine presence. At sixteen he married his cousin named Yasodhara who bore him a son whom they called Rahula. His wife was majestic, cheerful day and night, and full of dignity and grace.

Despite all this, he felt trapped amidst the luxury like a bird in a golden cage. During a visit to the city one day, he saw what is known as the four sights, that is, an old man, a sick man, a dead man, and a holy hermit. When he saw the sights, one after another, the realization came into affected his heart, it is subject to age and death. He asked, 'Where is the realm of life in which there is neither age nor death?' The sight of the hermit, who was calm for having given up the craving for material life, gave him the clue that the first step in his search for truth was renunciation.

After that, determined to find the way out of these universal sufferings, he decided to leave home to find the solution not for himself only, but for all human being. One night in his twenty-ninth year, he bade his sleeping wife and son a silent farewell, saddled his great white horse, and rode off toward the forest. He left at the height of youth, from pleasures to difficulties, from certainty of material security to uncertainty, from a position of wealth and power to that of a wandering ascetic who took shelter in the cave and forest, with his ragged robe as the only protection against the blazing sun, rain and winter winds. He renounced his position, wealth, authority and power, and a life filled with love and hope in exchange for the search for truth which no one had found.

For six long years, he endeavored to find the truth. He studied under the foremost masters of the day, and learned all these religious teachers could teach him. When he could not find what he was looking for, he joined a band of ascetics and excruciated his body so as to break its power and crush its interference, since it was believed that truth could be found this way. A man of enormous energy and will power, he outdid other ascetics in every austerity they proposed. While fasting, he ate so little that when he took hold of the skin of his stomach, he actually touched his spine. He pushed himself to the extent that no man had done and yet lived. He, too, would have certainly died had he not realized of no use of self-mortification, and decided to practice middle path instead. On the full moon night of the month of Vesakha, he sat under the Bodhi tree at Gaya, contemplative in deep meditation. It was then that his mind burst the bubble of the universe and realized the true nature of all life and all things. At the age of 35 years, he was transformed from an earnest truth seeker into the Buddha, the Enlightened One.

For nearly half a century, the Buddha walked on the dusty paths of India teaching the doctrines, so that those who heard and practiced could be ennobled and free. He founded an order of monks and nuns, challenged the caste system, raised the status of women, taught religious freedom and free inquiry, and opened the gates of deliverance to all, in every condition of life, high or low, rich or poor, saint or sinner. Exactly, in Buddhism, actions are merely termed as inexpert or unwholesome, not as sinful. Buddhism teaches that everyone is responsible for his own good and bad deeds, and that each individual can reflect on his own destiny. Says the Buddha in the Dhammapada: By the self alone is evil done; by the self is one defiled. By the self is evil not done; by the self is one purified. Purity and impurity concern the individual. One man may not purify another.[2]

Buddha was splendid in wisdom and intelligence. Every problem was analyzed in component parts and then reassociated in logical order with the meaning made clear. None could defeat him in dialogue. An unbeatable teacher, he still is the foremost analyst of the mind and phenomena even up to the present day. For the first time in history, he gave men the power to think for themselves, raised the worth of mankind, and showed that man can reach to the highest knowledge and supreme enlightenment by his own efforts.

Despite his superlative wisdom and royal lineage, he was never removed from the simple villager. Surface distinctions of class and caste meant little to him. No one was too little or low for him to help. Often when an outcast, or poor and sorrowful came to him, his self-respect was restored and he turned from the ignoble life to that of a noble being. The Buddha was full of compassion (karuna) and wisdom (panna), knowing how and what to teach each individual for his own benefit according to his level and capabilities. He was known to have walked long distances to help one single person. There was never an occasion when the Buddha expressed any unfriendliness towards a single person. Not even to his opponents and worst enemies did the Buddha express any unfriendliness. There were a few biased minds that turned against the Buddha and who tried to kill him, yet the Buddha never treated them as enemies. The Buddha once said in the Dhammapada: As an elephant in the battle-field endures the arrows that are shot into him, so will I endure the abuse and unfriendly expressions of others.[3]

He loved and devoted to his disciples, always inquiring after their well-being and progress. When staying at the monastery, he paid daily visits to the sick wards. His compassion for the sick can be seen from his advice, 'he, who attends the sick, attends on me.' The Buddha kept order and discipline on the basis of having the same relationship each to the other respect. King Pasenadi could not understand how the Buddha maintained such order and discipline in the community of monks, when he as a king with the power to punish, could not maintain it as well in his court.

The Buddha did not claim to have 'created' worldly conditions, universal phenomena, or the universal law which we call the 'Dhamma'. Although described as lokavidu or 'knower of the worlds', he was not regarded as the only superintendent of the universal laws. He freely acknowledges that the Dhamma, together with the working of the cosmos, is timeless; it has no creator and is independent in the absolute sense. Every conditioned thing that exists in the cosmos is subject to the operation of Dhamma. What the Buddha did was to rediscover this reliable truth and make it known to mankind. In discovering the truth, he also found the means whereby one could ultimately free oneself from being subjected to the endless cycle of conditioning, with its attendant evils of unsatisfactoriness.

Eventually, the Buddha at an advanced age of seventy-nine years, and in spite of his weakened health, perhaps chiefly due to his life of privation, made a memorable journey over all the places which he used to visit during his ministry. Then, just before he entered the final Nibbana, he told his disciples with the same idea to make themselves and the doctrine their lamps and refuge, but nothing else. He seems to have been conscious of the approach of his last days, because in talking with Ananda in the "Mahaparinibbana Sutta." Buddha said:

After the Blessed One had taken up residence for the rains, a severe sickness attacked him with violent and deadly pains. He bore them without any complaint, mindful and fully aware. Then he thought: "It is not right for me to attain final Nibbana without having addressed my attendants and taken leave of the sangha of bhikkhus. Suppose I forcibly suppressed this sickness by prolonging the will to live?" He did so. And then the sickness abated.
The Blessed One recovered from that sickness. Soon afterwards he came out from the sick-room and sat on a seat made ready at the back of the dwelling. The venerable Ananda went to him and said: I have been used to seeing the Blessed One in comfort and in health, Lord. Indeed, with the Blessed One's sickness I felt as if my body were quite rigid, I could not see straight, my ideas were all unclear. However, Lord, I comforted myself knowing that the Blessed One would not attain final Nibbana without a pronouncement about the sangha of bhikkhus.
But, Ananda, what does the sangha expect of me? The Dhamma I have taught has no secret and public version: 'there is no teacher's closed fist' about good things here. Surely it would be someone who thought thus: 'I shall govern the sangha' or 'the sangha depends on me' that might make a pronouncement about the sangha? A Blessed One does not think like that. How then can he make a pronouncement about the sangha? Now I am old, Ananda, my years have turned eighty: just as an old cart is made to carry on with the help of makeshifts, so too, it seems to me, the Blessed One's body is made to carry on with the help of makeshifts. For the Blessed One's body is only at ease when with non-attention to all signs and with cessation of certain kinds of feeling, he enters upon and dwells in the signless heart-deliverance. So, Ananda, each of you should make himself his lamps, himself and no other his refuge; each of you should make the Dhamma his lamps, the Dhamma and no other his refuge.
How does a bhikkhu do that? Here a bhikkhu abides comtemplating the body as body, ardent, fully aware and mindful, having put away covetousness and grief for the world. He abides contemplating feeling as feeling … contemplating consciousness as consciousness … contemplating mental objects as mental objects, ardent, fully aware, mindful, having put away covetousness and grief for the world. Either now or when I am gone, it is those, whoever they may be, who make themselves their lamps, themselves and no other their refuge, who make the Dhamma their lamps, the Dhamma and no other their refuge, who will be the foremost among my bhikkhus – of those, that is, who want to train.[4]

Later on, Buddha crossed the Ganges and went on to Vesali, where he passed the rainy season, and where, before setting out again, he summed up his teaching and prophesied his death within three months. Buddha said:
Go, Ananda, assemble in the meeting hall all the monks who are dwelling near Vesali. Even so, Lord, the elder Ananda replied, and having assembled in the meeting hall the monks who were dwelling near Vesali he approached the Lord, saluted him, and stood on one side. Standing on one side he said to the Lord, the assembly of monks is assembled, Lord, now is the time for what seems good to the Lord. So the Lord went to the meeting hall and sat on the appointed seat.
Thus seated the Lord addressed the monks: Therefore now, monks, those doctrines which have been comprehended and taught by me, you should grasp, follow, practice, and cultivate, in order that this religious life may be permanent and lasting, that it may be of advantage to many, of happiness to many, of compassion to the world, of profit, advantage, and happiness to gods and men. And what are those doctrines comprehended and taught by me which you should learn…? They are namely:
The four foundations of mindfulness,
The four right efforts,
The four bases of psychic power,
The five faculties,
The five powers,
The seven parts of enlightenment,
The Noble Eightfold Path.

These doctrines, monks, comprehended and taught by me, you should learn, follow, practice, and cultivate, in order that this religious life may be permanent and lasting, that it may be for the profit of many, for the happiness of many, out of compassion to the world, for the good, profit, and happiness of gods and men. So the Lord addressed the monks:
Come now, monks, I addressed you: transient are compound things, strive with earnestness. In no long time will take place the Tathagata's attaining of Nibbana.

Thus said the Lord, and having spoken the happy one, the master, said further:
Ripe is my age, short is my life.
Leaving you I shall go, my refuge have I made.
Be vigilant and mindful and virtuous, O monks.
Practicing concentration well, preserve the mind.
Who in this doctrine and discipline vigilantly shall abide, abandoning birth and transmigration, he shall make an end of pain.[5]

Then the Buddha said to the Ananda: come Ananda, let us go on to the sala grove of the Mallas, the Upavattana of Kusinara, on the further side of the river the River Hiranyavati.

Even so, Lord, the Ananda replied. Then the Buddha went with a large community of bhikkhus to the further bank of the Hiranyavati and on to the Mallians' sala-tree grove at the turn into Kusinara. Then he said to the Ananda: "Ananda, please a couch ready for me with its head to the north between the twin sala trees. I am tired and I will lie down." Even so, Lord, the venerable Ananda replied, and he did so. Then the Buddha placed himself in the lion's sleeping pose on his right side with one foot overlapping the other, mindful and fully aware.

Then the Buddha said to the venerable Ananda: "Ananda, the twin sala trees are quite covered with blossoms though it is not the season. They scatter and sprinkle and strew them on the Tathagata body out of veneration for him. And heavenly mandarava flowers and heavenly sandalwood powder fall from the sky and are scattered and sprinkled and strewn over the Tathagata body out of veneration for him. And heavenly music is played and heavenly songs are sung in the sky out of veneration for him. But this is not how a Tathagata is honoured, respected, revered, venerated or reverenced: rather it is the bhikkhu or bhikkhuni, or the man or woman lay follower, who lives according to the Dhamma, who enters upon the proper way, who walks in the Dhamma, that honours, respects, reveres and venerates a Tathagata with the highest veneration of all. Therefore, Ananda, train thus: We will live in the way of the Dhamma, entering upon the proper way and walking in the Dhamma".[6]

Finally, Buddha preferred attain final Nibbana in the Kusinara:
When he had spoken thus, the venerable Ananda said: Lord, let the Blessed One not attain final Nibbana in this little mud-walled town, this backwoods town, this branch township. There are other great cities like Campa, Rajagaha, Savatthi, Saketa, Kosambi and Benares. Let the Blessed One attain final Nibbana there where there are many prominent warrior-nobles and brahmans and householders who believe in the Blessed One. They will venerate the Blessed One's remains.

Do not say so, Ananda, do not say 'A little mud-walled town, a backwoods town, a branch township.' There was once a king called Sudassana the Great. He was a righteous lawful universal monarch who turned the wheel of righteousness, a conqueror of the four quarters, who had stabilized his country, and who possessed the seven treasures. His capital city was Kusinara, and then called Kusavati, and it was twelve leagues wide from east to west and seven leagues broad from north to south. The royal capital, Kusavati, was as mighty and prosperous with as many inhabitants and as crowded with people and full plenty as the royal capital city of the gods called Alakamanda. The royal city of Kusavati never lacked the ten kinds of sounds, that is to say, the sounds of elephants, horses, chariots, drums, tabors, lutes, songs, and the cries of 'Eat! Drink! Taste!' as the tenth sound.[7]

In accordance with above mentioned, it is unquestionable to describe the life of the Buddha are strongly connection that people felt with nature is illustrated particularly in the story above of the Buddha's life, in all the most significant events occur in the countryside and are associated with trees, his birth at Lumbini as his mother grasped the branch of a sala tree, his early experience of states of meditative absorption under the rose apple tree, his enlightenment between the Bodhi-tree, and his parinibbana between twin sala trees. However, let us look back to the world we live in today. There are plenty of examples to demonstrate this in the current situations: global warming, acid rain, the greenhouse effect, the ozone hole, radioactive contamination, and so forth. These reactions of nature to our carelessness harm us not only physically but also psychologically, as we face the threat of our environment becoming increasing baleful to healthy human life. The crucial of Buddhist practice, we have no reason to doubt, to live in harmony with nature.

Gautama the Buddha was not a mythical figure but an actual, historical personality who introduced the religion known today as Buddhism. Evidence to prove the existence of this great religious teacher is to be found in the following facts: The life of the Buddha, it is undoubtedly to say without any hesitation that could be seen in the Mahaparinibbana Sutta. Hence, in the Three Greatest Men in History, H. G. Wells mentioned: In the Buddha you see clearly a man, simple, devout, lonely, battling for light, and a vivid universal in character. Many of our best modern ideas are in closest harmony with it. All the miseries and discontents of life are due, he taught, to selfishness. Before a man can become serene he must cease to live for his senses or himself. Then he merges into a greater being. Buddhism in a different language called men to self-forgetfulness 500 years before Christ. In some ways he was nearer to us and our needs. He was more lucid upon our individual importance in service than Christ and less ambiguous upon the question of personal immortality.

In the end, what we can see in the life of the Buddha? In fact, he gave a new vision of eternal happiness, the achievement of perfection in Buddhahood. Of course, he gave the world a new explanation of the universe. He pointed out the way to the permanent state beyond all impermanence, the way to Nibbana, the final deliverance from the misery of existence. Yet, even today this great teacher is honored not only by the religious-minded people, but, he is also honored by atheists, historians, rationalists and intellectuals all over the world who have acknowledged him as the Enlightened, most liberal minded and compassionate teacher.

Abbreviations:
DN = Digha Nikaya.
JRAS = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.

References:
- Aiyer, Gopala V. (1908) "The Date of Buddha." Indian Antiquary. pp.341～350.

- Brewster, E. H. (1926) The Life of Gotama the Buddha. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd.

- Buhler, G. (1877) "Three New Edicts of Asoka." Indian Antiquary. pp.149～161.

- Cousins, L. S. (1996) "The Dating of the Historical Buddha." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. pp.57～63.

- Fleet, J. F. (1909) "The Day on which Buddha Died." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. pp.1～34.

- Geiger, W. (1950) The Mahavamsa. Colombo: The Ceylon Government.

- Hultzsch, E. (1910) "A Third Note on the Rupnath Edict." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. pp. 1308～1311.

- Ling, T. O. (1972) A Dictionary of Buddhism. New York: Charles Scribner's Son.

- Malalasekera, G. P. (1999) "Buddha" Encyclopaedia of Buddhism. Vol. III. Ceylon: The Government Press. pp.357～380.

- Norman, K. R. (2004) The Word of the Doctrine (Dhammapada). Oxford: The Pali Text Society.

- Rhys Davids, C. A. F. (1921) "Buddha" Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. Vol. II. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. pp. 202～204.

- Rhys Davids, T. W. (1922) "The Early History of the Buddhists" The Cambridge History of India. Vol. I. England: Cambridge University Press. pp.171～197.

- Rhys Davids, T. W. et el. (2000) Dialogues of the Buddha (Digha Nikaya). Vol. II. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited. (First Indian Edition).

- Smith, A. Vincent. (1918) "New Light on Ancient India." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. pp. 543～547.

- Tachibana, S. (1926) The Ethics of Buddhism. England: Oxford University Press.

- Thomas, Edward J. (1927) The Life of Buddha as Legend and History. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd.

- Thomas, Edward J. (1935) Early Buddhist Scriptures. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd.

- Ven. K. Sri Dhammananda. (1998) What Buddhists Believe. Malaysia: Buddhist Missionary Society.

- Ven. Nanamoli (1998) The Life of the Buddha. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.

- Ven. Narada (1998) The Buddha and His Teachings. Malaysia: Buddhist Missionary Society.

- Ven. Narada (2000) The Dhammapada. Colombo: Buddhist Culture Centre.

- Warder, A. K. (2004) Indian Buddhism. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited.

- Winternitz, M. (1933) History of Indian Literature. Vol. II. India: University of Calcutta.

Notes:
[1] There is great debate about the dates of the Buddha. A number of different theories have been advanced concerning of the birth and death of the Buddha, according to the Singhalese tradition the dates of Buddha life 623～543B.C. However, this ideal was rejected by most western scholars as incompatible with the chronology of the kings of Magadha. In Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand were 624～544 B.C. On the other hand, Mahayana and modern scholars prefer the dates about 566～486, or 563～483 B.C. W. Geiger states that the Buddha died in 483 B.C. and consequently had been born in 563 B.C. See Mahavamsa, pp. XXII～XL; S. Tachibana, the exact date when the Buddha appeared in the world is not known, but it is most generally accepted that he lived from about 563 to 483 B.C. See The Ethics of Buddhism, p.9; M. Winternitz mentioned Gotama Buddha was born about 480 B.C. See History of Indian Literature, Vol. II, p. 4; A. K. Warder adopted 566 B.C. as a provisional date for the birth and 537 B.C. for the renunciation of the Buddha. See Indian Buddhism, p. 45; for more details about the arguments of the dates of the Buddha. See also, JRAS (1909) The Day on which Buddha Died. pp. 1 ff., The Origin of the Buddhavarsha, the Ceylonese Reckoning from the Death of Buddha. pp.323 ff.; JRAS (1910) A Third Note on the Rupnath Edict. pp.130 ff.; JRAS (1918) New Light on Ancient India. pp.543 ff.; JRAS (1996) The Dating of the Historical Buddha. pp.57 ff.; Indian Antiquary (1877) Three New Edicts of Asoka. pp.149 ff.; Indian Antiquary (1908) The Date of Buddha. pp.341 ff.; The Cambridge History of India. Vol. I, pp.171 ff.
[2] Dhammapada 165
[3] Dhammapada. 320
[4] DN. 99～101
[5] DN. II. 119～120.
[6] DN. II. 137～138.
[7] Ibid. 146～147.

斯里蘭卡國寶 ─ 佛牙寺

2007-12-18T19:09:00.000-08:00

Peradeniya 植物公園

遠眺佛牙寺全景

佛牙寺佛殿

佛牙舍利塔入口處

佛牙寺建築彩繪

康堤鼓樂團

佛牙寺全景

佛牙寺一景

佛牙舍利塔

Esala Perahera Ceremony (佛牙節)

斯里蘭卡雖然是一個小島國，而因存有諸多佛教聖地而舉世聞名。在這諸多聖跡中，值得介紹的是「佛牙寺」。

康堤(Kandy)是斯里蘭卡王朝最後的古都，現為斯里蘭卡第二大城市，讚譽為斯里蘭卡最美的山城。佛牙寺(Malada Maligawa)即建居其中，而因供奉著佛牙舍利而聞名遐邇，乃朝拜者必到的聖地。除了這座馳名中外的佛牙寺外，全國最大型、總面積約六十公頃的植物公園 Peradeniya Botanical Garden，以及斯里蘭卡第一學府 University of Peradeniya，也都在這座康堤古城當中。於1988年，聯合國教科文組織(UNESCO)將「康堤」歸為文化遺產，正式列入《世界遺產名錄》。走進這座世界級的文化古都，希望透過文字描繪及精美的圖片，能將其豐富且多樣的文化色彩，與大家分享。

康堤建於十四世紀，地處斯里蘭卡中央山脈。該城平均海拔600米，約1,600多呎左右。在當地僧伽羅語中，「康堤」是高山的意思，顧名思義，敘述了「康堤」的主要特點。整座山城環湖而立，城週群山繚繞，連綿不絕；其中林木茂密，風光明媚，氣候涼爽。斯里蘭卡最大的河流──馬哈韋利(Mahaweli Ganga)河，流貫其間，兩岸峭壁，往下瞻望，是一片綠油油的樹林。凡到康堤都必須經過此一景觀。據說此地具有戰略性之意義，是一座易守難攻的城堡。距離首都可倫坡約116公哩，三個小時的車程。目前政府當局正在建造一條從可倫坡直達康堤的高速公路；通行後，將使兩地往來更為便利。

據歷史記載，斯里蘭卡的國都隨著時代的流變而交替：從西元前四世紀開始，Anuradhapura 是國家的首府，也是佛法最初傳入的地方；直到西元八世紀則為 Polonnaruwa 所取代。從十五至十九世紀，康堤成為斯里蘭卡的首都，從此成為王宮和佛牙寺的所在地。斯里蘭卡雖然曾在十六、十七世紀分別被葡萄牙、荷蘭佔領，然而康堤一直都保持著獨立地位；直到1815年被英國人征服。康堤始終保留身為斯里蘭卡宗教中心的基點，同時也是權勢和地位的象徵，更是斯里蘭卡每位新總統上任前必須前往禮贊的地方。由此可知，佛牙寺在斯里蘭卡人民的心目中，是如何的崇高及受到敬仰！

傳說：佛陀左犬齒舍利在印度時一度落入印度教徒手中，他們曾經以大鐵錘敲擊佛牙，試圖破壞，但碎的不是佛牙而竟然是鐵錘，之後印度教徒只好將之送還佛寺。於三世紀初，自印度迦陵伽國王子陀多及王妃稀摩梨，將佛牙舍利藏在王后髮髻，帶到斯里蘭卡的Anuradhapura後，佛牙也因某些戰亂期間被埋藏在深山的茂林內，加以保護，而隨著王朝更替逐漸向南遷移，自Vimala Dharma Suriya一世於1592年定都康堤，並在其王宮旁興建兩層樓高的佛牙寺，佛牙即便留在這個風光明媚的山城；時至今日已歷經413年。

佛牙寺建於西元十五世紀，經過歷代國王的擴建後，宏大雄偉。整個寺院建在高約6米的臺基上，四周環繞著人工挖掘的大湖，並有一條寬闊的林蔭大道。寺內主要建築有大殿、鼓殿、長廳、大寶庫、誦經廳等，其中最重要的建築是中心大殿。大殿內的有石雕、木雕、象牙雕、金銀飾、銅飾、鑄鐵飾、赤陶等各種裝飾；牆壁、樑柱、天花板上佈滿了彩繪──整座大殿被認為是康堤的藝術博物館。殿中有一尊巨大的坐佛；大殿左側是供奉佛牙的暗室，暗室中有一座金塔，塔中套塔，共有七層。而寺內每日分別在早上、中午以及黃昏三個時段舉行祭祀儀式；想要體會這獨特的宗教氣氛，可得要適時前來！

1977年，由於泰米爾之虎遊擊隊曾企圖用炸彈破壞佛牙寺及佛牙舍利，所幸只炸破了佛牙寺大門，未造成人命及佛牙舍利損失。至此之後，政府當局加強了對佛牙寺及佛牙遊行盛會(Esala Perahera)的保安措施，朝拜的信眾們都必須經過嚴密的安全檢查，才能順利進入到佛牙寺。供養佛牙舍利的主殿，終日戒備森嚴，平時並不對外開放；只在每年八月月圓期間的佛牙節之際才對外開放給信眾們瞻禮膜拜。佛牙節是斯里蘭卡最盛大的節日，也是全球最隆重的佛教節日之一，吸引著來自世界各地數十萬的遊客。

據世界遺產委員會評價：康堤古城，以佛教聖地著名於世，是斯里蘭卡王朝統治時期的最後一個首都；在1815年為英國人征服之前，曾享有2500多年的文化繁榮。康堤的佛牙寺是佛教徒的朝聖之要地，因此成為著名的歷史建築物！

The Five Precepts are Significant in Modern Society: A Buddhist Perspective

2007-12-18T18:12:00.000-08:00

The world today is in state of moral decline, the indication of which can be perceived in the ever-increasing rates of social problems, crime, violence and so forth. Undoubtedly, today, we expert more comfortable homes, more labor-saving, appliances, faster transportation, and more automation in factories. Our scientific, technological and social progress has resulted in enormous material progress. But humanity continues to live in fear, unrest and suffering. It cannot, however, be claimed that human beings in the modern world live more contented lives, feeling safe and secure, and that their interests will not be unjustly harmed by fellow human beings. Recently, we can see examples in the developed countries. Nowadays, there are millions of hungry people in underdeveloped countries who are fighting for a decent living and a square meal. Without economic growth, there can be no progress for them. The situation is equally problematic in some of the developed countries, where dreams of progress are combined with destruction, huge economic inequalities, a drive for industrialization, crime and unrest, suicide and mental illness.

Our world today is faced with multiple problems that threaten our individual lives as well as the entire world. Crises including war and aggression, widespread poverty and injustice, environmental degradation and globe warming, have reached alarming proportions. The analysis and solutions offered by conventional (policies or politics) (often based on greed, hatred and delusion) seem to be increasing the problems, rather than helping. Today we have to pay more attention so the gaps can be closed eventually. What was the significance of the Buddha’s teaching? The fundamental Buddhism stated by Buddha in the Dhammapada said: Not to do any evil, to cultivate good, to purify one's mind, this is the teaching of the Buddhas.[1]

Someone may raise the question as to how we can stop doing what is called 'evil' and cultivate what is called 'good'. Human beings have the freedom to do so, but how is it possible for us to refrain from evil or do well?

Buddhist teaching and contemplative practices, whose roots stretch back more than 2,500 years, offer us different, more effective ways of engaging with the world and with all its contemporary social issues. Renewed interest in applying this spiritual practice to social problems has produced a movement often referred to as socially engaged Buddhism, which offers both a theoretical framework for understanding the root causes of conflict and violence against other sentient beings and environment, as well as practices and approaches we can use in our own lives to help others and to create more just and peaceful societies. In the light of its current importance, there's a need to develop the environmental values implicit in the doctrine of the Buddha and attain global acceptance. Therefore, in this topic I will attempt to present an important point; the significance of the Five Precepts in modern society, and what is needed is a total development in the Buddhist point of view.

The word pancasila is commonly translated as the Five Precepts, or five branches of moral practice[2]. However, Stewart McFarlane suggests, maybe a better translation is "training rule".[3] According to Buddhism, the Sila or precept has various grades, and it has two main divisions; Gahattha-Sila which is meant for laymen and Bhikkhu-Sila is for monks. The fundamental grades are to be observed by laymen and the higher grades by monks. The Panca-Sila is the first step to the Buddhist training. Uposatha-Sila, which is also meant for laymen, also has several grades: Five Precepts, Eight Precepts, Ten precepts, etc. Panca-Sila is to be observed by laymen in every day life, Uposatha-Sila on Uposatha days, i.e. Full moon, New moon and the eight days of the waxing and waning moon. The Bhikkhu-Sila which is to be practised by monks also has two grades, i.e., Samanera-Sila and Upasampada-Sila. The first one is meant for novice monks and the second for those who have received higher ordination as Bhikkhus (monks). However, W. Pachow has put forward the suggestion that the rules of the Patimokkha (the rules of the monks) are a direct out growth of the Five Percepts. He said: It would not be unreasonable to say that the code of discipline of the Sangha is but an enlarged edition of the pancasila which have been adopted by the Buddhists and the Jains from the Brahmanical ascetics. And under various circumstances, they have developed subsidiary rules in order to meet various requirements on various occasions. This appears to us to be the line of development through which the growth of these rules could be explained.[4]

It is clear that the first Five Precepts are binding on all Buddhists, as they briefly sum up the primary duties of man. A layman may acquire merit by observing the five, eight, even the ten precepts, either for a limited period or till death. The simplest of the Buddhist morality are the Five Precepts as follows:
1. I undertake the precept to abstain from the taking of life.
2. I undertake the precept not to take that which is not given.
3. I undertake the precept to abstain from misconduct in sensual actions.
4. I undertake the precept to abstain from false speech.
5. I undertake the precept to abstain from liquor that causes intoxication and indolence.

I. Taking life:
The first precept is to refrain from killing living beings. No one has the right to take the life of a living being; nor his own life. Whether the life is that of another being or one's own, it makes no difference. What is important is that it is a life! To take any life is wrong and sinful. In recent years many scientist and some religionists have used the expressions "humane killing", "mercy killing", "gentle killing", and "painless killing" to justify the ending of a life. Buddhism can never accept this argument because it is not how the killing occurs, but the fact that the life of one being is put to an end by another. No one has any right to do that for whatever reason, and we have to understand mercy and killing can never go together. For example, some people kill their pets because they don’t like to see the pet suffer. However, if mercy killing is to be practiced on pets or other animals, then why are people so reluctant to do the same to their beloved ones? According to Buddhism death is not mentioned as an end of suffering, 'suicide' as a reaction to suffering.[5] A person who prefers death and believes that to be a solution to suffering has totally misunderstood, and it is a false escape route according to the Buddhist point of view. The following is found in one of the Buddhist texts: A monk who preaches suicide, who tells man: "Do away with this wretched life, full of suffering and sin; death is better," in fact preaches murder, is a murderer, is no longer a monk.[6]

Nevertheless, Martin G. Wiltshire identified in the title of his paper that suicide seems to be regarded with ambivalence in the Pali canon. Wiltshire wrote in his opening paragraph: "We should, perhaps, point out that suicide first presented itself to us as an intriguing subject of enquiry when we discovered that it appeared to be regarded ambiguously within the Canon, that it was both censored and condoned."[7]

The view that suicide is regarded in the canon let's we turn back over to the 1922, L. de la Vallee Poussin states:
We have therefore good reason to believe (1) that suicide is not an ascetic act leading to spiritual progress and to nirvana, and (2) that no saint or Arahat - a spiritually perfect being - will kill himself. But we are confronted with a number of stories which prove beyond dispute that we are mistaken in these two important conclusions.[8]

In recent times Carl B. Becker, commenting upon the suicide of the monks Channa and Vakkali, refers to the, "Buddha's praise of the suicides," and claims that this praise is based upon the fact that . . . "their minds were selfless, desireless and enlightened at the moment of their passing."[9] I disagree with Becker regarding the Buddha's praising of these suicides, and will show why this does give an insight into the reasons why there is a division in morality between the suicidal act of an Arahat and a non-Arahat. Etienne Lamotte wrote: The desperate person who takes his own life obviously aspires to annihilation: his suicide, instigated by desire, will not omit him from fruition, and he will have to partake of the fruit of his action. In the case of the ordinary man, suicide is a folly and does not achieve the intended aim.[10]

This situation is compared with the suicide of an enlightened person, he further mentions: In contrast, suicide is justified in the persons of the Noble Ones who have already cut off desire and by so doing neutralized their actions by making them incapable of producing further fruit of fruition. From the point of view of early Buddhism, suicides is a normal matter in the case of the Noble Ones who, having completed their work, sever their last link with the world and voluntarily pass into Nirvana, thus definitively escaping from the world of rebirths.[11]

According to the above mentioned the suggestion that suicide is right for Arahats but wrong for non-Arahats also seems strange in another respect. Arahats and Buddha's are held up by the tradition as moral paradigms, in all circumstances to emulate a Buddha or an Arahat is to do right. Suicide, however, according to the views of Lamotte and others, is an exception to this rule. In this one respect the unenlightened should not simulate the enlightened.
The first precept, regarded as the most important, is the resolution to not kill or injure any human, animal, bird, fish or even a tiny insect. The Dhammapada explains that everyone fears punishment and death.[12] Whereas, the first precept does not mention that most Buddhists are vegetarian, and the Buddha himself seems to have accepted meat in his alms bowl. His emphasis was on avoiding intentional killing, so that it was worse to swat a fly than to eat a dead carcass. He allowed a monk to eat flesh if he had not seen, heard or suspected that the creature had been killed specifically for him, such a diet then being 'blameless'.[13] In the Majjihima Nikaya, Buddha further suggests, as regards to lay devotee, even killing so as to give meat as alms generates 'demerit', due to the distress felt by the animals while being brought to slaughter and the pain when killed.[14]

However, in Mahayana Buddhism, the Lankavatara Sutra[15] denies that the Buddha allowed 'blameless' meat for monks, and argues against meat-eating: all beings have been relatives in a past life; eating meat hinders meditation and leads to bad health, arrogance and rebirth as a carnivorous animal or low-class human; if no meat is eaten, killing for consumption will cease. In China, the first precept has been seen as requiring vegetarianism, and so monks, nuns and devout lay disciples have avoided meat, and vegetarian feasts have been common at Buddhist celebrations and at every full moon and new moon.[16]

There is a difference between the schools; the reason is that Theravada Buddhist monks live on alms, they should not pick and choose what food is acceptable, or deprive a donor of the opportunity of making 'merit' by refusing 'blameless' food. As regards to the Mahayana Buddhist monks, they are allowed to cook in the temple, and undoubtedly they can manage pure vegetarian food. Whereas, in my opinion the reason between eating meat and being a vegetarian, depends on different cultures, propagating in different counties and so forth. Undoubtedly, respect for life is the general knowledge of the first precept, and no society or person would resist to saintly or (sainted) of human life. Therefore, the precept against killing can be accepted all over the world as valid. Everyone has an equal right to pursue one's own happiness, and they should not endanger the happiness of another. To pursue one’s own happiness at the expense of another is an immoral and unethical act.

II. Taking what has not been given:
The second precept is to refrain from possessing anything except that which is one's own and that which is willingly given by another. This means one should not take possession of any property belonging to another person by way of stealing, seizing, looting, robbing, plundering, cheating, black-mailing, bribery, hijacking, smuggling and so forth.

Lily de Silva has mentioned[17] the inordinate acquisitive greed of man is the root cause of much misery today. For example, the wanton felling of trees has resulted in severe soil erosion in mountainous regions. Time and again the consequence has been massive mudslides resulting in the destruction of whole villages and the loss of hundreds of lives. The destruction of tropical rain forests all over the world has also altered the climatic conditions of the whole planet. Scientists are now warning of the danger of a global temperature rise and the consequent melting of icecaps in the Polar Regions. In such an event, within the course of the next century, the sea will engulf vast inhabited coastal regions all over the world. All of these and many more tragedies are the direct effects of modern man's greed, which has assumed insufferable proportions. The first step to restrain greed is the observance of the second precept, the positive aspect of which is non-ostentatiousness and the ability to be contented with a simple life where needs is satisfied rather than greed.

Buddhism is very close to nature. Monks are forbidden to chop down trees and meditators are encouraged to meditate in the forest. Also as Buddhists, by reducing the amount of things we consume we would be reducing pollution. The role that Buddhists have is in countering global warming. Because of the human heavy affliction of greed, anger and delusion, the environment is now relatively suffering too. The minds of human beings are very powerful, they intend, they act and they speak to influence others to think, act and speak likewise, for good or for evil. So back to the basics, if we wish the world to recover, we need to aim at people’s hearts and minds so that they are afflicted with less and less greed, anger and delusion.

III. Sexual misconduct:
The third precept is to refrain from the wrong way of enjoying sensual pleasures. A layman is not totally prohibited from appeasing his senses; nevertheless, he must be moderate and must not exceed the limit. The senses are five in number: seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting and touching. Their respective objects are material forms, sound, smell, taste and touch. They are admitted through the doors of the eye, ear, nose, tongue and outer covering of the body respectively. One should know where to draw the line in enjoying sense objects. Excessive enjoying causes harm to one as well as to others. It could bring about damaging results not only in this world but also in the world beyond. This precept enjoins the laymen to guard against craving for excessive enjoyment of sensual pleasure.

Sexually transmitted diseases have increased rapidly, to assume almost epidemic proportions. The whole world was shaken with a rude shock by the advent of the dreaded disease AIDS, Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, for which medical scientists all over the globe are struggling, without success so far, to find an effective cure. It is also a well-known secret that one of the causes for cancer of the cervix in women is exposure to several sexual partners. The discovery of contraception relieved man of the responsibilities that come in the wake of sex and sensuality has become an accepted social trend. All manners of sexual behavior are practiced without restraint. Homosexuality, lesbianism, premarital, sadism, masochism, Pedophilia, Pederasty, and extramarital sex have become widespread phenomena and accepted as routine. Incest and rape, too, raise their ugly heads with unprecedented frequency. Sexual abuse of children within the family circle is so common that in Britain a telephone service called Child-line has been set up which specializes in counseling abused children. It is reported that this voluntary organization receives over 1000 calls a day.[18] Sadomasochism has also become a popular theme for advertisers who seek to appear 'edgy' or unconventional.

The Buddha teaches to avoid sexual misconduct. That means that if one wants to experience sex, he must do so without creating any violence or without using any kind of force, threat or causing fear. A decent sex life, which respects the other partner, is not against this religion; it accepts the fact that it is a necessity for those who are not yet ready to renounce the worldly life. According to Buddhism, those who are involved in extra-marital sex with someone who is already married, who has been betrothed to someone else, and also with those who are under the protection of their parents or guardians are said to be guilty of sexual misconduct, because there is a rupture of social norms, where a third party is being made to suffer as a result of the selfishness of one or the other partner.

In view of what has been said about "Birth is suffering, ageing is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering, sorrow and lamentation, pain, grief and despair are suffering," some people have criticized Buddhism saying that it is against married life. They are wrong. The Buddha never spoke against married life. However, he pointed out all the problems, difficulties and worries that people would have to face when they take on the responsibility of marriage. Just because he warned one against problems in marriage does not mean that the Buddha condemned marriage. The act of marriage itself implies that a person is still more attached to the physical world and since craving influences our mental faculties, attachment and human emotions, it is but natural that problems would arise. This happens when we have to consider the need of others and to give in to those needs.

One important aspect of Buddhism is that the Buddha did not impose any religious laws or commandments. The Buddha was a unique teacher who set out a number of disciplinary codes for us to uphold according to our way of life. Those who follow the precepts observe them voluntarily but not as obligatory religious laws. It is up to us to follow the advice through our own understanding and experience of what is good for us and for others. Through trial and error, we will learn to follow the advice, which will give us just peace and happiness.

In Majjihima Nikaya, the Buddha said: Not only others', teachings, but the Buddha said, his own teaching themselves should be subjected to careful scrutable before acceptance. He went as far as that an inquiring monk should first examine the Buddha himself so as to verify whether his teaching is really enlightened before accepting him as the Buddha.[19] And he did not claim any authority on the basis of omniscience, which he expressly rejected when others attributed it to him.[20]

One should try to understand the nature of the worldly life. By knowing that you have to face problems, you will be able to strengthen your mind and be more prepared to face the problems that could arise if you get married. Religion is important to help you overcome your problems. Whatever you learned about religious principle when you were young can be adopted to avoid misunderstanding, disappointment and frustration. At the same time, certain good qualities such as patience and understanding, which we learned through religion, are important assets to help us to lead a peaceful married life. Normally, it is due to a lack of mutual understanding that many married couples lead miserable lives. The result of this is that their innocent children also suffer. It is better to know how to handle your problems in order to lead a happy married life. Religion can help you to do this. The Buddha has said, "If a man can find a suitable and understanding wife and a woman can find a suitable and understanding husband, both are fortunate indeed."

IV. Telling lies:
The fourth precept is to refrain from uttering lies. It is sinful to utter a falsehood even as a joke. Much graver are the lies uttered in other respects such as perjury. One must not utter a lie even for the sake of one's life. Uttering lies through ill will, hatred, jealousy, lust, fear or prejudice will bring about harmful results not only in the present life but also in future lives. According to Buddhism, rulers must set a good example for their subjects by maintaining a high standard of morality in their public and private lives. Only the individuals' high integrity and moral stature can command the respect and loyalty of the people. When rulers are unrighteous and morally depraved, social values deteriorate and society gradually sinks into anarchy and chaos.[21] As man is a social animal, mutual dependability is a survival strategy. Dishonesty weakens the very basis of society and the whole social structure breaks down with mutual distrust. Military strength cannot bring unity and harmony in society; it is moral power, which infuses resilience and strength to social life.

V. Taking intoxicants:
The fifth and last of the Five Precepts is to refrain from using intoxicating drinks and narcotic drugs. Alcoholism and drug abuse are burning social problems of modern society. They ruin the physical and mental health of the addicts. One does not have to be a habitual drunkard to fall prey to the disease. According to a British medical journal, daily beer drinkers are twelve times more at risk of developing colon cancer than non-drinkers. It is also reported that even relatively modest social drinking by pregnant women can harm the fetus. Alcohol and drugs are at the root of many crimes in modern society and the cause of many serious traffic accidents. This brings about harmful effects physically as well as mentally. Once a person uses any of them, there is a tendency to become addicted to it. Hardly any hope is left for one to recover when one becomes an addict. Gradually, he becomes a miserable person and finally a total wreck. The suttas report that bad health and a bad reputation also are caused by the habit of taking intoxicants, for it removes inhibitions and weakens wisdom.[22] Moreover, once a person is so intoxicated, he loses his normal self. He forgets himself. He is unable to control his temptations and thus is apt to commit offences. Hence, the fifth precept totally prohibits the use of them except for medicinal purposes.

According to Buddhism each man in society is expected to voluntarily take upon himself/herself the vow not to destroy life. Life is sacred and each human being is expected to respect life as inviolable. When this non-violent attitude is widespread, the right to life of each individual gets automatically fulfilled. Additionally, this non-violent attitude generates security of the person, peaceful relations, friendliness, amity and benevolence in society, giving rise to harmonious interpersonal relations. The Buddha says: "Never by hatred is hatred appeased, but it is appeased by kindness. This is an eternal truth."[23] Thus, adherence to the Five Precepts not only safeguards human rights but also the health of the body and the mind, generating a tension-free society with healthy homes for bringing up happy families. In Anguttara Nikaya, Buddha said that undertaking the precepts is a gift to oneself and others.

We live today, to be sure, in a distressing world. Natural disasters and disasters caused by human errors have brought pain and famine to millions of people throughout the world. Environmental disasters caused by our heartless and wanton destruction of the earth's precious resources have added inestimable costs to our lives and that cost continues widespread and out-of-control even now as we meet. Fortunately, most distressing of all, there have never been wars as destructive as the series of conflicts that have erupted since the end of the last Great War. As Gadjin M. Nagao states[24] that unlike natural disasters, war can be prevented. We know where the problem lies. We know who is at fault. We do not blame nature. But neither do we look into our own heart. Wars are created and sustained by human beings. In connection with these human disasters and foolishness, I would like to quote the Dhammapada, in which the Buddha instructed us with these words. The fool is tormented thinking these "sons belong to me, this wealth belongs to me." He himself does not belong to himself. How then can sons be his? How can wealth be his?[25]

In the next verse, the Buddha continues:
The fool who knows his foolishness is wise at least to that extent; but a fool who thinks himself wise is called a fool indeed.[26]

Further he continues and compares a fool to a spoon, a spoon is used to drink soup, but it cannot distinguish the taste. The Buddha says:
If a fool be associated with a wise man even all his life, he does not perceive the truth even as a spoon (does not perceive) the taste of soup.[27]

P. D. Premasiri maintains[28] that the problems of modern society may be explained from the Buddhist standpoint as a consequence of the separation of scientific knowledge and technological skill from moral wisdom. There is ample evidence of the proliferation of greed and hatred at all levels of social interaction in modern society. It has created economic disparity, poverty and destitution. The lack of concern for the cultivation of sympathetic concern for the well-being of others is leading to increased social conflict and tension. He’s further points out the solution is Buddhism, and says, the ultimate goal of the Buddhist way of life is the eradication of greed, hatred and delusion. If much of the psychological insanity that produces moral crises in modern society is the consequence of the proliferation of greed, hatred and delusion, then the Buddhist ideal of moral perfection can be said to be directly relevant to the social life of modern man.

According to above the Five Precepts aim at bringing about purity of body, speech, and mind at a basic level of morality, the fundamental requirement for one to become a true and complete Buddhist. Buddhist morality addresses a very common, yet crucial question: How can we judge if an action is good or bad? The answer, according to Buddhism, is a simple one. The quality of an action hinges on the intention or motivation from which it originates. If a person performs an action out of greed, hatred, and delusion, his action is considered to be unwholesome. On the other hand, if he performs an action out of love, charity, and wisdom, his action is a wholesome one. Gunapala Dharmasiri says the Buddha taught that what is basically necessary is the correct perspective of looking at things, which results in love. This is the Buddhist solution to the problem of the modern world.[29] Greed, hatred and delusion are known as the 'Three Evil Roots', while love, charity and wisdom as the 'Three Good Roots'. The word 'root' refers to the intention from which that action originates. Therefore, no matter how a person tries to disguise the nature of his action, the truth can be found by examining his thoughts, which gave rise to that action. And the mind is the source of all our speech and action. It seems simple but is not easy. When a kid is three years old, he knows it. However, when he is over eighty years old, he cannot really practice it in his daily life.

References:
1. Anguttara-Nikaya. London: Pali Text Society.

2. B. Carr, I. Mahalingam eds. 1997. Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy. New York: Routledge.

3. Carl B. Becker. 1990. "Buddhist Views of Suicide and Euthanasia." Philosophy East and West. Vol. 40, No. 4. p.543～555.

4. Damien Keown. 1996. "Buddhism and Suicide: The Case of Channa." Journal of Buddhist Ethics. University of London.

5. D. T. Suzuki. 1930. Studies in the Lankavatara sutra. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

6. Etienne Lamotte. 1987. "Religious Suicide in Early Buddhism." Buddhist Studies Review Vol. 4, No.2. p.105～118.

7. Gunapala Dharmasiri. 1979. "Buddhism and the modern world." Narada Felicitation Volume presented to the Ven.Narada Mahathera. Ed. by Piyadassi Thera. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society. pp.89～103.

8. Gadjin M. Nagao. 1992. "What We Can Do in the Cause of World Peace." Journal of the Institute of Asia Studies. Vol. IX. No.2. pp.1～8.

9. Jataka. London: Pali Text Society.

10. L. de la Vallee Poussin. "Suicide" Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. Ed by J. Hastings. England: T & T Clark, Edinburgh. Vol. 12. pp.24～26.

11. Lily de Silva. 1991. "The Scope and Contemporary Significance of the Five Precepts." Buddhist Ethics and Modern Society: An International Symposium. Ed. by Charles Wei-Hsun Fu. et el. New York: Greenwood Press. pp.143～157.

12. Majjihima-Nikaya. London: Pali Text Society.

13. Martin G. Wiltshire. 1983. "The suicide problem in the Pali canon" The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies. Vol. 6. p.124～140.

14. Michael Attwood. Suicide as a Response to Suffering. http://www.westernbuddhistreview.com/.

15. P. D. Premasiri. 2002. Buddhist Ethics, Moral Perfection and Modern Society. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society. Newsletter. No.49. http://www.buddhistinformation.com/buddhist_ethics1.htm.

16. Padmasiri De Silva. 1996. "Suicide and Emotional Ambivalence: An early Buddhist perspective." Pali Buddhism. Ed by Frank J. Hoffman and Deegalle Mahinda. Curzon Press. pp. 117～132.

17. Peter Harvey. 2004. An Introduction to Buddhistm Teachings, History and Practices. England: Cambridge University Press.

18. Robert C. Childers. 1872. Dictionary of the Pali Literature. New Delhi: Asia Educational Services.

19. S. Radhakrishnan. 2003. The Dhammapada. UK: Oxford University Press.

20. Ven. Nanamoli Thero. 1966. The Patimokkha. Bangkok: Maha Makut Academy.

21. W. Pachow. 1955. A Comparative Study of the Pratimoksa. Santiniketan: The Sino-Indian Cultural Society.

Notes:
[1] Dhammapada. chapter 9, p.12.
[2] R.C. Childers. A Dictionary of the Pali Language. p.327.
[3] Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy. p.454.
[4] A comparative study of the Pratimoksa. p.37.
[5] Cf. Michael Attwood - Suicide as a response to suffering. http://www.westernbuddhistreview.com/.
[6] The Patimokkha. p.20; see also Sacred Books of the East Vol. XIII. (1884) p.4.
[7] The journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies. Vol.6. 1983. p.124.
[8] The Encyclopedia of Religion Vol.12 p.129.
[9] Philosophy East and West Vol. 40, No. 4 (October 1990) p.547.
[10] Buddhist Studies Review Vol. 4, No.2 (1987) p.106.
[11] Ibid. pp.106～107.
[12] Dhammapda. Chapter 10. "All tremble at violence; all fear death. Putting oneself in the place of another, one should not kill nor cause another to kill." p.129. or Cf. Dhammika Sutra: "He should not kill a living being, nor cause it to be killed, nor should he incite another to kill. Do not injure any being, either strong or weak, in the world."
[13] M. II. 368～371.
[14] M. I. 371.
[15] Studies in the Lankavatara Sutra. pp.244～259.
[16] Peter Harvey. An Introduction to Buddhism Teachings, History and Practices. p.204.
[17] The scope and contemporary significance of the five precepts. p.151. or Cf. Radical Therapy: Buddhist Precepts in the Modern World. Bodhi Leaf Publication No.123, 1991.
[18] Radical Therapy: Buddhist Precepts in the Modern World. Bodhi Leaf Publication No. 123, 1991; Cf. The scope and contemporary significance of the five precepts. p.151.
[19] Majjihima Nikaya. Vol.I, p.317.
[20] Ibid. p.482.
[21] A., Vol. II, pp.74～76.
[22] Anguttara Nikaya. Vol. III, p.205; Jakata. Vol. V, pp.15～18.
[23] Dhammapada. Chapter 5. p.60.
[24] Journal of the Institute of Asia studies. Vol. IX. No.2. March, 1992. p.1
[25] The Dhammapada. p.79.
[26] Ibid. p.80.
[27] Ibid.
[28]Buddhist Ethics, Moral Perfection and Modern Society. http://www.buddhistinformation.com/ buddhist_ethics1.htm.
[29] Buddhism and the modern world. p.102.

Impermanence, Suffering and No-self Response to Human Cloning: A Buddhist View

2007-12-18T16:52:00.000-08:00

What is cloning? In short, the reproduction of a living being genetically identical to another living being by the insertion of the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) from any body cell or from an early embryo into an ovum from which the DNA has been removed. Such a clone would be the same as an identical twin of the original except for the difference in age. Human cloning is currently almost universally prohibited.[3] Cloning human beings would involve removing the nucleus of the fertilized egg cell (which contains the hereditary genetic material) and replacing it with the nucleus of a cell taken from the adult whom it is wished to clone. The resulting embryo would be the 'identical twin' of the adult from whom the replacement cell nucleus was obtained. It would exactly replicate the genetic make-up of the adult and so its tissue and organs would be 'customized' to whatever stage was appropriate for development of the tissue or organs required (or potentially required for) for it to be the adult twin.[4]

On February 23, 1997, the public learned that Dr. Ian Wilmut, a Scottish scientist, and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute successfully used a technique called somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) to create a clone of a sheep; the cloned sheep was named Dolly. SCNT involves transferring the nucleus of an adult sheep somatic cell, into a sheep egg from which the nucleus had been removed. After nearly 300 attempts, the cloned sheep known as Dolly was born to a surrogate sheep mother. SCNT is not reproduction since a sperm is not used with the technique, but rather it is an extension of technology used not only in research but also used to produce medically relevant cellular products such as cartilage cells for knees, as well as gene therapy products.

On February 28, 1997, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) announced a comprehensive plan for the regulation of cell and tissue based therapies that incorporated the legal authorities described in the FDA's 1993 guidance, Proposed Approach to Regulation of Cellular and Tissue-Based Products.

On March 7, 1997 then, President Clinton issued a memorandum that stated: "Recent accounts of advances in cloning technology, including the first successful cloning of an adult sheep, raise important questions. They potentially represent enormous scientific breakthroughs that could offer benefits in such areas as medicine and agriculture. But the new technology also raises profound ethical issues, particularly with respect to its possible use to clone humans."[5]

A research team from the University of Hawaii produced a clone from a male mouse. In Korea Woo-Suk Hwang at Seoul National University cloned both a milk-cow and a Korean meat-cow with favorable heredity. What makes matters more complicated is Hwang's statement on another occasion that he fails to see that a cloned human embryo should be acknowledged as human life at all: "That requires the egg from a woman and the sperm from a man," he said. "We used no sperm."[6] And he concludes: "Nothing in Buddhist teachings raises precise ethical questions about the next step–inserting that cloned embryo from a test tube into a women's womb to clone an infant."[7]

Undoubtedly, Buddhist scriptures do not discuss whether a human embryo can be used to benefit other sentient beings. As we consider new forms of biotechnology that did not exist during the Buddha's time such as human-assisted reproduction, cloning, and embryo stem cell research, we may find new divisions to "life." For instance, cellular life as opposed to human life, embryo as opposed to pre-embryo, and (as a result of in-vitro fertilization procedures) embryos in a laboratory dish as opposed to embryos in a womb. Buddhists need to discuss such issues in relation to the precepts, and taking into consideration legal regulations, establish norms and criteria so that a balance can be struck between "protecting life" and "improving life" when these values conflict.[8] Anyhow, if Hwang had a serious interest in advancing or even applying Buddhist ethical reasoning to human cloning research, he would have made sure that the audience got a clear picture of his idea of human life. Or, at least, of what he sees as the moment from which human life must be protected. Hwang never mentions that Buddhist texts contain quite clear definitions of the beginnings of human life, and, moreover, most of them argue, generally speaking, that to kill embryonic life is an unwholesome act.[9]

A parallel to Hwang's disregard can be found in some of the articles that zealously adopted his attitude in all respects as an example of the 'Buddhist' attitude as such. Actually, Korean Buddhist critics of cloning-for-research play an important role in the movement "People's Solidarity for Participatory Democracy", a fact seldom mentioned in Western reports.[10] And the specific teachings of Buddhism are based on the ideal of helping others, out of compassion, with special regard to their suffering. Damien Keown states that cloning, if "it is ever perfected in human beings, would show only that there are a variety of ways in which life can be generated. It would not cast doubt on whether the host from which the clone was taken, or the clones itself, were ontological individuals."[11] According to Somparn Promta, Buddhism has little against reproductive cloning, since it is aimed at producing a human being, not killing it. However, when the process involves a lot of killing (as when many embryos have to be destroyed), the process can become objectionable.[12] However, if cloning human beings can be practiced, to be sure, abortion also can be acceptable, because there will no difference between destroying embryos than in killing their fetus. Edward Conze emphasized what is expected of a Buddhist is that he should do no violence to others by imposing his views upon them. Non-interference with the dignity of others thus becomes a prime consideration in the presentation of a doctrine.[13] On the other hand, P. D. Premasiri points out; the, "golden rule"[14] must be applied to the question of cloning. He argued: "But if there is any objection, it has to be on consideration of other facts like: If we produce cloned human beings, are there likely to be certain problems, emotional problems? Under normal conditions we have parents that care, parental relationships which are connected with the emotional development of the present; now, without these will a person, produced in this artificial manner, become a misfit, have emotional problems which could result in disastrous consequences later on?"[15]

Buddhist scholars generally agree that the process by which children are born into the world makes no difference. "Individuals can begin their lives in many ways," including but not limited to human sexual generation. Cloning is thereby understood as an alternative method of generating new human life, in principle continuous with other methods (Keown). The Buddha's warning to his followers that speculation about metaphysical issues was futile because the human problems of birth, old age, death, and sorrow remain regardless. However, basic Buddhist teachings present an ethic of responsibility, centered on the values of non-injury and the relief of suffering of sentient beings, compassion, the "no-self," the moral authority of intuition, and reincarnation. These values offer some elements of a Buddhist response to reproductive and genetic technologies, including cloning. According to Buddhism the principle of doctrine is given in a short formula of four lines. In the Majjhima-Nikaya, the Buddha says,
When this is, that is (Imasmim sati idam hoti);
This arising, that arises (Imassuppada idam uppajjati);
When this is not, that is not (Imasmim asati idam na hoti);
This ceasing, that ceases (Imassa nirodha idam nirujjhati).

[16]

On this principle of conditionality, relativity and interdependence, the whole existence and continuity of life and its cessation are explained in detail in what is called "Dependent Origination" Paticca-samuppada. In the Samyutta-Nikaya, the Buddha explained the origin and the cessation of suffering: And what, bhikkhus, is dependent origination? With ignorance as condition, volitional formations (come to be); with volitional formations as condition, consciousness; with consciousness as condition, name-and-form; with name-and-form as condition, the six sense bases; with the six sense bases as condition, contact; with contact as condition, feeling; with feeling as condition, craving; with craving as condition, clinging; with clinging as condition, existence(recheck this with your source or reference because something is missing or not in the correct order, I would check it later!) as condition, birth; with birth as condition, aging-and-death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, displeasure and despair come to be. Such is the origin of this whole mass of suffering. This, bhikkhus, is called dependent origination.

But with the remainder-less fading away and cessation of ignorance comes cessation of volitional formations; with the cessation of volitional formations,……aging-and-death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, displeasure and despair cease. Such is the cessation of this whole mass of suffering.

[17]

Ven. W. Rahula points out that the doctrine of "No-self" is the natural result of, or the corollary to, the analysis of the teaching of "dependent origination." He further states, dependent origination should be considered as a circle, and not as a chain.[18] Dependent origination is not something invented or created by Buddha. As the Buddha himself has claimed "whether the Buddhas were to exist or to not exist this nature of reality is there, namely, the conditionality."[19] Ven. Nyanatiloka points out, dependent origination, is the doctrine of the conditionality of all physical and physical phenomena, a doctrine, which, together with that of 'no-self' forms the indispensable condition for the real understanding and realization of the teachings of the Buddha.[20] Whereas, Th. Stcherbatsky maintains, Buddhism never denied the existence of a personality, or soul, in the empirical sense, he only maintained that it was not the ultimate reality.[21]

This remark states that since everything is impermanent, there is nothing that has a permanent, abiding identity that could be called a "self." We look at our bodies and we say, "Well, this is I right here. Look at me! I'm quite solid." But if we trace our life back to its beginning, we had no "body" at that point. Our bodies have been absorbed from food we have eaten, life consumed. In this view, at what point does the physical body become 'me'? Buddhism states that all the things we associate with a 'self', our bodies, our feelings, our thoughts, our consciousness are aggregates of other things, all impermanent by nature. In this view, all are with regard to one another; it is impossible to discuss one without also including the other two. The Majjhima-Nikaya clarifies this point with a discussion between the Buddha and his students:
What do you think, monks, is the body permanent or impermanent?
Impermanent, Sir.
Are the sensations, perceptions, mental phenomena, is consciousness, permanent or impermanent?
Impermanent, Sir.
That which is impermanent, is it sorrowful or joyful?
Sorrowful, sir.
Is it right then to regard that which is impermanent, sorrowful, subject to the law of decay, as "This is mine, this I am, this is my Self?"
Surely not, sir.

[22]

Definitely the Buddha never discussed the ethics or theoretical aspects of cloning technology, but it does not mean a discussion of cloning based in Buddhist teachings cannot take place. In the final deathbed urgings of the Buddha to his followers, he encouraged them to seek out the truth from their own experiences. Buddhist teachings indicate that the Buddha provided a four-fold decision-making method for his followers should they encounter unanticipated questions. The four steps involve recourse to (1) original Buddhist texts; (2) derivation of rules in 'consonance' with the original texts; (3) the views of respected teachers; (4) the exercise of personal judgment, discretion, and opinion. As regards to cloning, modern scholars have followed this invocation, offering different ethical interpretations-from Buddhist perspectives-of cloning. Damien Keown, a Buddhist ethicist, asserts that fertility technology is in accord with the basic good of creating life and opportunities for rebirth. As for cloning, he ventures that the clone would undoubtedly be an individual from an ontological point of view and, based on Buddhist teachings, should be granted full moral respect and protection.[23]

While cloning might be permissible under some understandings of Buddhism, the scientific research necessary to build up to cloning encounters difficulties. Part of the "Noble Eightfold Path" promulgated by the Buddha prohibits infliction of violence or harm on sentient beings. This would seem to permit research on human pre-embryos, but the primacy Buddhism places on birth as a human being as a necessary condition of enlightenment can restrict such research. Buddhism holds that a new being comes into existence shortly after fertilization. Moreover, especially where the research process is very inefficient and causes loss of life, both embryo research and animal research would be especially problematic. Any Buddhist account would ask of cloning research or human cloning: "How does this serve all sentient beings?"[24] Some Buddhist scholars have raised objections to applications of cloning, particularly commercial or social agendas that may support cloning for reasons contrary to the interest of the clone. These agendas may include pressure on scientists for continual progress and discovery or for commercial gain from pharmaceuticals or organ harvesting. In this respect, there would be greater suspicion within Buddhism about private-sponsored cloning research without public oversight.[25] Whatsoever, both Courtney Campbell and Damien Keown, a renowned expert on Buddhism, agree that the faith may approve of human cloning as a potential step toward self-understanding through scientific research. However, the religion does not condone the harmful effects produced by cloning research (such as the destruction of cells). In this case, the ends are desirable, but the means are not.[26]

In my conclusion I would like to say the quality of life should be reducing and eradicating our greed, hatred and delusion, not by manipulating our Cloning, DNA and so forth, because all things are impermanent, mutable, and so forth. Not only because of that, finally, there will be a lot of problems, and as P. D. Premasiri suggested, under normal conditions, we have parents that care, parental relationships which are connected with the emotional development of the present; now, without these will a person, produced in this artificial manner become a misfit, have emotional problems that could result in disastrous consequences later on. However, Buddhism does not teach that life is a wretched experience, just that the pleasures we do get from objects or people are impermanent and thus the end of pleasure is suffering. This is considered to be such a fundamental truth in Buddhism that it is the first of the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism. Suffering in life includes birth, aging, illness, death, separation from loved ones, association with unpleasant persons, the frustration of one's desires, and the suffering caused by the five aggregates.

All conditions of the bodies are unavoidable as long as one has a physical body. All these various forms of suffering are experienced when facing the different situations that have caused them. Some critics argue that Buddhism is pathological and cynical, hovering on the dark and shadowy side of life, an enemy of harmless pleasures, and an unfeeling trample on the innocent joys of life. They see Buddhism as being pessimistic; tending to an attitude of hopelessness towards life, as encouraging a vague, general feeling that pain and evil predominate in human affairs. These critics base their views on the First Noble Truth that all conditioned things are in a state of suffering. They seem to have forgotten that not only had the Buddha taught the cause and end of Suffering, but he had taught the way to ‘End’ Suffering. Buddha says, "I teach one thing and one thing only. Suffering and the end of suffering."

Finally, is cloning good or bad? To answer this, as I mentioned in the foregoing that the three universal characteristics of existence are the characteristics of impermanence, suffering, and no-self. In this point, that is why, the Buddha has intimation to his devotee that consideration about metaphysical issues was ineffective because the human problems of birth, old age, death, and sorrow remain, regardless. Therefore, Buddhist teachings present an ethic of responsibility, centered on the values of non-injury and the relief of suffering of sentient beings, compassion, the 'no-self,' the moral authority of intuition, and reincarnation. These values offer some elements of a Buddhist response to reproductive and genetic technologies, including human cloning. Modern science, which is seeking to displace metaphysics and religious dogma, attempts to transform society by effecting changes in the material conditions of living. The scientific world-view attaches no significance to the importance of morality. Modern science does not provide us with the knowledge of what is morally right or wrong, good or bad. When human beings are not concerned with such knowledge, and do not care to pursue the principles of a morally good life, social interaction among humans is not likely to become very different from that among brutes. As a result, I strongly recommend, with no hesitation, that Buddhism deny the ideas of so-called human cloning, embryo stem cells, and so forth.

References:

- Bhikkhu Bodhi. (2000) The Connection Discourses of The Buddha. Vol.I. Boston: Wisdom Publications.

- Campbell, Courtney S. The Buddhist View of Human Cloning. http://www.tomwmiller.com/tcsnwebpage_073.htm.

- Conze, Edward. (2002) Buddhist Thought in India. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.

- Falls, Evelyn. et el. The Koan of Cloning: A Buddhist Perspective on the Ethics of Human Cloning Technology. http://www.parkridgecenter.org.

- Harris, John. (1985) The Value of Life: An Introduction to Medical Ethics. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

- Horner, I. B. (1954) The Collection of the Middle Length Saying (Majjhima-Nikaya). London: Pali Text Society.

- Jayatilleke K. N. (2000) The Message of the Buddha. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.

- Keown, Damien. (1995) Buddhism and Bioethics. New York: Palgrave Publishing.

- Lita, Ana. Cloning: Where Do the Major Religions Stand? http://www.humaniststudies.org.

- Malalasekera, G. P. (2004) Encyclopaedia of Buddhism. Vol. VII. fascicle 2. Sri Lanka: The Department of Buddhist Affairs.

- Promta, Somparn. Buddhism and Human Genetic Research. http://them.polylog.org/6/fps-en.htm.

- Radhakrishnan, S. (2003) The Dhammapada. UK: Oxford University Press.

- Schlieter, Jens. Some Observations on Buddhist Thoughts on Human Cloning. http://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/kbe/Buddhists%20on%20Cloning.pdf.

- Th. Stcherbatsky. (2003) The Central Conception of Buddhism and the Meaning of the Word “Dharma”. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services.

- The U. S. Food and Drug Administration. Use of Cloning Technology to Clone a Human Being. http://www.fda.gov/cber/genetherapy/clone.htm.

- Ven. Hui min. (2002) “Buddhist Bioethics: The Case of Human Cloning and Embryo Stem Cell Research.” Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal. No. 15, pp. 457～470.

- Ven. K. Sri Dhammananda. (1998) What Buddhists Believe. Malaysia: Buddhist Missionary Society.

- Ven. Rahula, W. (1956) What the Buddha Taught. England: The Gordon Fraser Gallery Limited Bedford.

- Youngson, Robert. (2001) The Royal Society of Medicine Health Encyclopedia. London: Bloomsbury Publishing.

Notes:
[1] The Message of the Buddha. pp.90～98.
[2] What Buddhists Believe. p.269.
[3] The Royal Society of Medicine Health Encyclopedia.
[4] The Value of Life: An Introduction to Medical Ethics. p.124.
[5] Use of Cloning Technology to Clone a Human Being. http://www.fda.gov/cber/genetherapy/clone.htm.
[6] Some Observations on Buddhist Thoughts on Human Cloning. http://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/kbe/Buddhists%20on%20Cloning.pdf.
[7] Ibid.
[8] Buddhist Bioethics: The Case of Human Cloning and Embryo Stem Cell Research. p.470.
[9] Some Observations on Buddhist Thoughts on Human Cloning.
http://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/kbe/Buddhists%20on%20Cloning.pdf.
[10] Ibid.
[11] Buddhism and Bioethics. p.90.
[12] Buddhism and Human Genetic Research. http://them.polylog.org/6/fps-en.htm.
[13] Buddhist Thought in India. p. 213.
[14] The principle can be found in Buddhist scriptures too, e.g., the well-known Dhammapada, "All tremble at violence; all fear death. Putting oneself in the place of another, one should not kill nor cause another to kill." p.129 ff. (S. Radhakrishnan 2003) or Cf. Dhammika Sutra: "He should not kill a living being, nor cause it to be killed, nor should he incite another to kill. Do not injure any being, either strong or weak, in the world."
[15] Some Observations on Buddhist Thoughts on Human Cloning.
http://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/kbe/Buddhists%20on%20Cloning.pdf.
[16] M.III. p.63.
[17] The Connection Discourses of the Buddha. pp.533～534.
[18] What the Buddha Taught. pp.52～54.
[19] Samyutta-Nikaya. II. p.25.
[20] Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Vol.VII. fascicle 2, p.342.
[21] The Central Conception of Buddhism and the Meaning of the Word 'Dharma' p.22.
[22] MN. I, 178.
[23] The Koan of Cloning: A Buddhist Perspective on the Ethics of Human Cloning Technology. http://www.parkridgecenter.org.
[24] The Buddhist View of Human Cloning. http://www.tomwmiller.com/tcsnwebpage_073.htm.
[25] Ibid.
[26] Cloning: Where Do the Major Religions Stand? http://www.humaniststudies.org.

Bibliography of Translations from the Chinese Buddhist Canon into Western Languages

2007-12-18T03:41:00.002-08:00

http://sw.chibs.edu.tw/~mb/tools/bibls/transbibl.html

佛陀的一生 (The life of Buddha )

2007-12-17T19:09:00.000-08:00

http://tw.youtube.com/watch?v=P2NLQGrbf5U

We need to learn that peer-to-peer works

2007-12-17T18:22:00.000-08:00

Jimmy Wales, revolutionary luminary who founded online peer-reviewed encyclopaedia, Wikipedia.

My passion is captured best in the vision statement that guides my work: "Imagine a world in which every single person on the planet has free access to the sum of all human knowledge."

I take that statement very seriously. The so-called "digital divide" between poor and wealthy countries is difficult to solve when we are talking about material objects. But governments are the only barriers preventing the spread of knowledge, and the only solution is freedom of speech.

Let me pick apart my famous statement bit by bit. By "every single person on the planet" I challenge us all to think beyond the Internet. Only 1 billion of us have Web access at this point, but due to rapidly developing technology, the next billion and the billion after that will be online -- talking to us and joining the global conversation -- long before we have had time to think about the implications.

Wikipedia now exists in more than 125 languages, Wikia in more than 65. These projects -- to build an encyclopedia and to build the rest of the library -- show us the path to sharing knowledge around the world. Our open-source approach allows anyone anywhere, who can find a way to connect to the Internet, to join in our grand dream of building a world of free knowledge.

And by "free" I don't just mean "free" as in free beer (no cost or low cost) but also "free" as in free speech. People must be empowered to copy, modify and redistribute -- commercially or non-commercially -- the knowledge that we have to share.

Basic knowledge, made available under conditions that allow copying, modification and redistribution, can create a whole new global dynamic. When I speak to philanthropists who are interested in doing some good in the world, I explain to them: if you spend $1 million sending textbooks to a poor country, you have done something good. But if you spend the same sum sending freely licensed textbooks to that nation, you have changed the game permanently.

By "access", I don't mean just access to a static library. Our search engines must be free as well: they should use open-source software, be publicly transparent and community controlled. This is the task of Search Wikia.

For too long, we have accepted secrecy as a precondition for quality in search engines, even though the best computer scientists tell us that security through obscurity is a bad idea. The best way to battle spammers and scammers is through open public participation in the process of ranking and rating search results.

And by "the sum of all human knowledge" I mean everything that communities can gather and share, whether an encyclopedia, a dictionary, or a guide to life in all of its myriad forms.

We are living in a unique era. People talk about peer-to-peer, but it is my belief that few have truly grasped what that means, and where we are going. We need to learn that peer-to-peer works through respect of each other as peers.

How can we do that? The only way is to recognize the value of each individual human life, and respect the rights of the individual to create, grow and build something new and exciting. We must have a global social environment that encourages and supports the best among us to come forward and contribute to the grand project of knowledge.

Peer-to-peer learning is the key. When a child in Zimbabwe can directly share a story of hope and pain with a child in Alabama or Albania, we are -- for the first time -- making real the notion that we are all here together on a tiny planet.

And we had better make the best of it.

Buddhist Centre in all over the World

2007-12-17T08:36:00.000-08:00

http://www.bris.ac.uk/thrs/buddhistcentre/ : University of Bristol

http://www.dongguk.edu/english/gs/buddhist_studies.htm : University of Dongguk

http://www.buddhism.hku.hk/ : Univerisity of Hong Kong

http://www.pgipbs.net/about_us.htm : University of Kelaniya

http://www.soas.ac.uk/academis/centres/buddhiststudies/centre-of-buddhist-studies.html : SOAS, University of London

http://www.mcu.ac.th/En/index.php? : University of Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya

http://faculty.orinst.ox.ac.uk/index2.php?member=gombrich : University of Oxford

http://www.arts.pdn.ac.lk/pali/ : University of Peradeniya

http://www.uq.edu.au/buddhistcentre/ : University of Queensland

http://scbs.stanford.edu/ : University of Stanford

http://www.sunderland.ac.uk/buddhist/ : University of Sunderland

http://www.arts.usyd.edu.au/departs/indian/buddhist/postgraduate.shtml : University of Sydney

http://depts.washington.edu/asianll/lang_degs/prog_buddhist.html : University of Washington

http://www.uwest.edu/ : University of the West

http://www.religion.northwestern.edu/faculty/bond.html : University of Northwestern

http://www.icabs.ac.jp/IcabsE/ : International College for Postgraduate Buddhist Studies - Tokyo

http://www.usu.edu/history/rels/index.htm: Utah State University

http://www.columbia.edu/cu/religion/course-unify/2007-2008/index.html : University of Columbia

http://www.goldsmiths.ac.uk/history/staff/d-keown.php : Goldsmiths, University of London

Buddhist Dictionary Online

2007-12-17T08:07:00.000-08:00

http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/pali/ : Pali English Dictionary - T.W. Rhys Davids

http://www.budsas.org/ebud/bud-dict/dic_idx.htm : Buddhist Dictionary - Nyanatiloka

http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/dic_idx.html : Buddhist Dictionary of Pali Proper Names - G.P. Malalasekera

http://www.hm.tyg.jp/~acmuller/soothill/soothill-hodous.html : A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms - William Edward Soothill

http://www.accesstoinsight.org/glossary.html : A Glossary of Pali and Buddhist terms

http://www.budsas.org/ebud/dict-pe/index.htm : Concise Pali-English Dictionary - A.P. Buddhadatta Mahathera

http://www.budsas.org/ebud/bud-dict/pali-gloss.htm : Small Pali-English Glossary of Buddhist Terms - Bhikkhu Bodhi

http://aa2411s.aa.tufs.ac.jp/~tjun/sktdic/ : Apte Sanskrit Dictionary Search

http://acharya.iitm.ac.in/sanskrit/dictionary/h-k_method.html : Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary

http://buddhism.2be.net/Main_Page : Buddhist Encyclopedia

http://myweb.ncku.edu.tw/~lausinan/Pali/Pali-Han-Eng-glossary.htm : 巴利文-漢文佛學名相辭彙

http://www.wisdomvoice.org/agama/ad : 阿含經辭典

http://www.cbeta.org/index.htm : 中華電子佛典

http://www.hsilai.org/etext/search-1.htm : 佛光山電子大藏經

http://www.fowang.org/fxd/lookup.htm : 佛學大詞典

斯里蘭卡宿舍 (Boarding House)

2007-12-17T03:51:00.000-08:00

Buddhist Collections (佛學藏書)

2007-12-16T19:24:00.000-08:00

Buddhist Collections

I. Book Series

Abhidhamma for the Beginner – Egerton C. Baptist
Abhidhamma Philosophy – J. Kashyap
Abhidhamma Studies: Buddhist Explorations of Consciousness and Time – Nyanaponika Thera.
Abhidhamma Studies: Researches in Buddhist Psychology – Nyanaponika Thera.
Abhidhammic Interpretations of Early Buddhist Teachings – G. P. Sumanapala.
Abhidhammadipa: With Vibhashaprabhavritti (Introduction) – Padmanabh S. Jaini.
Abhidharmavatara by an Unidentified Author – Hajima Sakurabe. The Nava-Nalanda-Mahavihara Research Publication Vol. II. pp.359～369.
A Brief History of Buddhist Studies in Europe and America – J. W. De Jong.
A Buddhist Bibliography – Arthur C. March.
A Catalogue of Chinese Translation of the Buddhist Tripitaka – B. Nanjio
Access Guide to Printed and e-Journals 2004 – University of Peradeniya.
A Comparative Analytical Catalogue of the Kanjur Division of the Tibetan Tripitaka – The Otani Daigaku Kyoto Japan. (西藏甘殊爾勘同目錄)
A Comparative History of Ideas – Hajime Nakamura.
A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma – Bhikkhu Bodhi.
A Concise Encyclopedia of Buddhism – John Powers.
A Dictionary of Religion and Religions – Richard Ince.
A Dictionary of the Pali Language – R. C. Childers.
A Handbook of Pali Literature – Oskar Von Hinuber.
A History Buddhist Philosophy: Continuities and Discontinuities – David J. Kalupahana.
A History of Pali Literature – B. C. Law.
A History to Indian Buddhism from Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana – H. Akira.
A Manual of Abhidhamma (Abhidhammattha-sangaha) - Ven. Narada.
A Manual of Buddhism – Mrs. Rhys Davids.
A Manual of Buddhist Historical Traditions – B. C. Law.
An Introduction Buddhism – Peter Harvey.
Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute: Index to Volumes I-XXI (1919～1940) – G. N. Shrigondekar.
An Introduction to Buddhism – J. Takasaki.
An Introduction to Buddhist Psychology – P. D. Silva.
An Introduction to Mahayana Buddhism – William M. McGoven.
An Introduction to Pali Literature – S. C. Banerji.
An Introduction to Theravada Abhidhamma – G. P. Sumanapala.
A Pali-English Technical Glossary – Bhikkhu Nanamoli.
A Sourcebook of Early Buddhist Philosophy – D.J. Kalupahana.
A Treatise on Buddhist Philosophy or Abhidharma – Lily De Silva.

Basic Buddhist Concepts – Kogen Mizuno.
Bibliography on Buddhism – Shinsho Hanayama.
Bibliography of Tibetan Studies: Being a Record of Printed Publications Mainly in European Languages – Sibadas Chaudhuri.
Bibliographical Sources for Buddhist Studies: Addenda I～III – Yasuhiro Sueki.
Britannica Ready Reference Encyclopedia – 10 Vols.
Buddha Abhidhamma – Dr. Mehm Tin Mon.
Buddha: His Life, His Doctrine His Order – H. Oldenberg.
Buddhism a Modern Perspective – Charles S. Prebish.
Buddhism a Study of the Buddhist Norm – Mrs. Rhys Davids.
Buddhism after Patriarchy – Rita M. Gross.
Buddhism and Bioethics – Damien Keown.
Buddhism and Nature – Lambert Schmithausen.
Buddhism Culture and Sri Lanka Pilgrim’s Guide – Ven. K. Wimalajoti.
Buddhism in India as Described by the Chinese Pilgrims A.D. 399～689 – K. L. Hazra.
Buddhist Analysis of Matter – Y. Karunadasa.
Buddhist Art in India, Ceylon and Java – J. Ph. Vogel.
Buddhist Chinese-Sanskrit Dictionary – Akira Hirakawa.
Buddhist Dictionary – Nyanatiloka Thera.
Buddhist Essays – O. H. De A. Wijesekera.
Buddhist Ethics – Ven. Hammalawa Saddhatissa.
Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary. 2 vols – F. Edgerton.
Buddhist Images of Human Perfection – Nathan Katz.
Buddhist Literature Yesterday and Today – G. R. Sain.
Buddhist Logic 2 vols – Th. Stcherbatsky.
Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics – Mrs. Rhys Davids.
Buddhist Philosophy: A History Analysis – David J. Kalupahana.
Buddhist Philosophy in India and Ceylon – A. B. Keith.
Buddhist Sect in India – N. Dutt.
Buddhist Social Philosophy and Ethics – Prof. Sumanapala Galmangoda.
Buddhist Spirituality: Indian Southeast Asian, Tibetan, Early Chinese. Vol. I – Takeuchi Yoshinori.
Buddhist Spirituality: Later China, Korea, Japan and the Modern World. Vol. II – Takeuchi Yoshinori.
Buddhist Studies: Essays in Honour of Professor Lily de Silva – Dept. of Pali and Buddhist Studies University of Peradeniya.
Buddhist Sutras: Origin, Development, Transmission – Kogen Mizuno.
Buddhist Texts through the Ages – E. Conze.
Buddhist Thought in India – E. Conze.

Catalogue of Pali, Sinhalese and Sanskrit Manuscripts in the Colombo Museum Library (1901).
Catalogue of Pali Sinhalese and Sanskrit Manuscripts in the Temple Libraries of Ceylon – Louis D. Zoysa (1885).
Century Volume of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (1823～1923) – Frederick Eden Pargiter.
Collected Papers on Buddhist Studies – Padmanabh S. Jaini.
Compendium of Philosophy – Shwe Zan Aung.
Concept and Reality in Early Buddhist Thought – Bhikkhu Nanananda.
Concise Pali-English Dictionary – A. P. Buddhadatta.
Contemporary Buddhist Ethics – Damien Keown.

Dhamma-Vinaya: Essays in Honour of Venerable Professor Dhammavihari (Jotiya Dhirasekera) – Asanga Tilakaratne, et al. eds.
Dharma: Man Religion Society Governance in Buddhism – Prof. Dhammavihari.
Dialogues of the Buddha (Digha Nikaya) – T. W. Rhys Davids, et el.
Dictionary of Pali-Proper Names – G. P. Malalasekera.
Discourse on Elements: Dhatukatha – U. Narada.
Disputed Dharmas Early Buddhist Theories on Existence – Collett Cox.

Early Buddhism – T. W. Rhys Davids.
Early Buddhism: It’s Religious and Intellectual Milieu – Chandima Wijebandara.
Early Buddhist Scriptures – E. J. Thomas.
Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge – K. N. Jayatilleke.
Early History of Buddhism in Ceylon – E. W. Adikaram.
Early History of the Spread of Buddhism and Buddhist School – N. Dutt.
Early Madhyamika in India and China – Richard H. Robison.
Encyclopedia of Buddhism vol. I～VIII – G. P. Malalasekera.
Encyclopedia of Buddhism - Robert E. Buswell. 2 Vols.
Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Abhidharma Buddhism to 150 A.D. Vol. VII – Karl. H. Potter.
Essays on Time in Buddhism – H. S. Prasad.

Further Buddhist Studies – E. Conze.
Fundamental of Buddhist Ethics – Gunapala Dharmasiri.

Guide through the Abhidhamma-Pitaka – Nyanatiloka Thera.

Handbook of Chinese Buddhism Being Sanskrit-Chinese Dictionary – Ernest J. Eitel.
Handbook of Pali Literature – S. Jayawardhana.
Historical Dictionary of Buddhism – Charles S. Prebish.
Historical Study of the Terms Hinayana and Mahayana and the Origin of Mahayana Buddhism – Ryukan Kimura.
History of Buddhism in Ceylon: The Anuradhapura Period 3rd Century BC - 10th Century A. C. – W. Rahula.
History of Indian Buddhism – E. Lamotte.
History of India Literature vol. II – M. Winternitz.
History of the Buddhist Sangha in India and Sri Lanka – Gunaratne Panabokke.
History of Theravada Buddhism in South-East Asia – K. L. Harza.

Index of Harvard Journal Asiatic Studies Vols.1～20 (1936～1957) – John L. Bishop.
Index to Indian Antiquary (1872～1921) – Lavinia Mary Anstey.
Index to the Journal of the American Oriental Society Vols. I～XX – George F. Moore.
Index to the Mahayana Sutralamkara – G. M. Nagao.
Index to the Publications of the Asiatic Society (1788～1953) Vol.I – Sibadas Chaudhuri.
Index to the Royal Asiatic Society’s Journal (1889～1903) – Royal Asiatic Society.
Indian Buddhism – A. K. Warder.
Indian Buddhism – Hajime Nakamura.
Indian Buddhism: Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion – T. W. Rhys Davids.
Introduction to Indian Textual Criticism – S. M. Katre.

Journal of Buddhist Studies Volume 1 (2003) and 4 (2006) – Centre for Buddhist Studies, Sri Lanka.
Journal of the Postgraduate Institute of Pali and Buddhist Studies. Vol I, 1999 – University of Kelaniya.

Kalyani: Journal of Humanities & Social Science of the University of Kelaniya. Volumes II, III, and IV.
Karma and Rebirth - Foundation of the Buddha’s Moral Philosophy – David J. Kalupahana.
King Asoka and Buddhism – Anuradha Seneviratna.

Linguistic Approach to Buddhist Thought – Genjun H. Sasaki.
Literary History of Sanskrit Buddhism – J. K. Nariman.

Madhyamika and Yogacara – Gadjin M. Nagao.
Mahayana Buddhism – N. Dutt.
Mahayana Texts Translated into Western Languages – Peter Pfandt.
Mahavyutpatti (翻譯名義大集-梵藏漢和四譯對校) – R. Sasaki.
Manual of Indian Buddhism – H. Kern.
Mindfulness in Plain English – Ven. H. Gunaratana Mahathera.

Nagajuna – A Translation of His Mulamadhyamakakarika with an Introductory Essay – Kenneth K. Inada.
Nagajuna’s Moral Philosophy and Sinhala Buddhism – David J. Kalupahana.
Nagajuna’s Philosophy: As Presented in the Maha-Prajnaparamita Sastra – K. Venkata Ramanan.
Nama-rupa and Dharma-Rupa: Origin and Aspects of An Ancient Indian Conception – Maryla Falk.
Narada Felicitation Volume.
Nirvana and Ineffability – Asanga Tilakaratne.

Origin and Doctrines of Early Indian Buddhist Schools (異部宗輪論) – Jiryo Masuda.

Pali English Dictionary – T. W. Rhys Davids and William Stede.
Pali Language and Literature. 2 vols. – K. L. Hazra.
Pali Literature - A History to Indian Literature. Vol. VII – K. R. Norman.
Pali Literature and Language – W. Geiger.
Pali Literature of South East Asia – Ven. H. Saddhatissa.
Pali Primer – Lily De Silva.
Philosophy and Its Development in the Nikayas and Abhidhamma – F. Watanabe.
Philosophy and Psychology in the Abhidharma – Herbert V. Guenther.

Reality and Expression: A Study on the Conception of Pannatti in the Theravada Abhidhamma – G. P. Sumanapala.
Researches in Indian & Buddhist Philosophy Essays in Honour of Prof. Alex Wayman – Ed. By Ram Karan Sharma.

Sambhasha: Mahabodhi Centenary Commemorative Volume – A. Adikari.
Sanskrit English Dictionary – Monier Williams.
Sarvastivada Literature – A. C. Banerjee.
Saying of Buddha the Iti-Vuttaka – Justin Hartley Moore.
Seven Works of Vasubandhu (世親) – Stefan Anacker.
Sinhalayo – S. Paranavitana.
Sri Lanka Journal of Buddhist Studies. Vol. I～V – Buddhist and Pali University of Sri Lanka.
Studies in Abhidharma Literature and the Origins of Buddhist Philosophical Systems – E. Frauwallner.
Studies in Buddhism – F. Max Muller, Monier Williams, Reginald Stephen, Robert C. C hilders.
Studies in Indian Thought: Collected Papers of Prof. T. R. V. Murti – Harold G. Coward.
Studies in Pali & Buddhism: A Homage Volume to the Memory of Bhikkhu Jagdish Kashyap – Editor by A. K. Narain.
Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of India – L. M. Joshi.
Studies in the Lankavatara Sutra《楞伽經》- D. T. Suzuki.
Studies in the Origins of Buddhism – G. C. Pande.
System of Buddhistic Thought – Yamakami Sogen.
Studies in Buddhist Philosophy and Religion – Collected papers of Prof. P. D. Premasiri.
Studies in the Philosophy and Literature of Pali Abhidhammika Buddhism – Aloysius Pieris,s.j.
Studies of the Pali Commentaries – Sodo Mori.
Suttanipata: Text and Translation – N. A. Jayawickrama.

The Birth of Indian Psychology and Its Development in Buddhism – Mrs. Rhys Davids.
The Bodhisattva Doctrine Buddhist Sanskrit Literature – H. Dayal.
The Book of Analysis: Vibhanga – A. Thittila.
The Book of the Gradual Saying (Anguttara Nikaya) – E. M. Hare.
The Book of the Kindred Saying (Samyutta Nikaya) – T. W. Rhys Davids, etc.
The Buddha’s Ancient Path – Piyadassi Thera.
The Buddhist Nirvana and Its Western Interpreters – Guy Richard Welbon.
The Buddhist Path to Awakening – R. M. L. Gethin.
The Buddhist Philosophy of Universal Flux – S. Mookerjee.
The Buddhist Tripitaka as it is Known in China and Japan (1876) – S. Beal.
The Central Conception of Buddhism and the Meaning of the Word "Dhamma" – Th. Stcherbatsky.
The Central Philosophy of Buddhism: A Study of the Madhyamika System – T. R. V. Murti.
The Collection of the Middle Length Saying (Majjhima-Nikaya) – I. B. Horner.
The Comparative Catalogue of Chinese Agamas & Pali Nikayas – Chizen Akanuma.
The Conception of Buddhist Nirvana – Th. Stcherbatsky.
The Date of Buddha’s Death and Ceylon Chronology – John M. Senaveratne.
The Dawn of a Civilization Mihintale – Prof. Anuradha Seneviratna.
The Dhammapada – Ven. Narada.
The Dipavamsa – H. Oldenberg.
The Early Buddhist Theory of Man Perfected – I. B. Horner.
The Essentials of Buddhist Philosophy – J. Takakusu.
The Ethics of Buddhism – S. Tachibana.
The Expositor (Atthasalini) 2 Vols. – Pe Maung Tin.
The History of Buddhist Thought – E. J. Thomas.
The Life of the Buddha – Bhikkhu Nanamoli.
The Mahavamsa – W. Geiger.
The Mahayana Buddhist Sculpture of Ceylon – Diran Kavork Dohanian.
The Message of the Buddha – K. N. Jayatilleke.
The New Pali Course 3 vols. – A. P. Buddhadatta.
The Origin and Developed Doctrines of Indian Buddhism – Ryukan Kimura.
The Pali Literature of Ceylon – G. P. Malalasekera.
The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga) – Bhikkhu Nanamoli.
The Path of the Buddha – Kenneth W. Morgan.
The Psychological Attitude of Early Buddhist philosophy and its Systematic Representation According to Abhidhamma Tradition – A. Govinda.
The Psychology and Philosophy of Buddhism: An Introduction to the Abhidhamma – W. F. Jayasuriya.
The Role of Morality in Economics – Prof. Buddhadasa Hewavitharana.
The State and Religion: In Ceylon since 1815 – Prof. Tennakoon Vimalananda.
The Story of the Stupa – Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of Ceylon. Vol. V - A. H. Lonhurst.
The Stupa in Ceylon – S. Paranavitana.
The Tibetan Tripitaka Catalogue Vol. I～IV – D. T. Suzuki.
The Udana & the Itivuttaka – John D. Ireland.
The Way to Nirvana – L. De La Vallee Poussin.
The Western Contribution to Buddhism – W. Peiris.
The Word of the Buddha – Nyanatiloka Mahathera.
The Word of the Doctrine (Dhammapada) – K. R. Norman.
The Yogacara Idealism – A. K. Chatterjee.
Two Thousand Years of Buddhism – Prof. P. V. Bapat.

What Buddhists Believe – K Sri Dhammananda.
What the Buddha Taught – Ven. W. Rahula.
World Religions – Warren Matthews.

中文書目

說一切有部為主的論書與論師之研究 – 印順導師。正聞出版社。
梵藏漢和四譯對校《翻譯名義大集》(Mahavyutpatti) 木+神亮三郎等著(上下集)。世界佛學名著譯叢12及13，華宇出版社。
梵藏漢和四譯對校《翻譯名義大集》(Mahavyutpatti) 梵藏索引。木+神亮三郎等著，世界佛學名著譯叢14，華宇出版社。
德格版《西藏大藏經總目錄》宇井伯壽等著(上下集)。世界佛學名著譯叢29及30，華宇出版社。
《歐美佛學研究小史》J. W. De Jong著，霍韜晦譯。世界佛學名著譯叢71，華宇出版社。
《佛教哲學—一個歷史的分析》D. J. Kalupahana著，陳銚鴻譯。世界佛學名著譯叢71，華宇出版社。
《西洋佛教學者傳》William Peiris著，梅西文譯。世界佛學名著譯叢84，華宇出版社。
《親近釋迦牟尼佛》- 從巴利藏經看佛陀的一生。Bhikkhu Nanamoli 著，釋見諦、牟志京譯，橡樹皮出版社。
《成語詞典》聯營出版有限公司。

II. Article Series

Abbreviation – The Chicago Manual of Style.
Abhidhamma - Edward J. Thomas. Encyclopedia Britannica. Vol.1. p.44.
Abhidhamma - T.O. Ling. A Dictionary of Comparative Religion. p.19.
A Bibliography of Ceylon - H. A. I. Goonetileke. Vol. II. XVIII religions. pp.555～618.
A Bibliography of Ceylon - H. A. I. Goonetileke. Vol. III. XVIII religions. pp.300～355.
A Bibliography of Ceylon - H. A. I. Goonetileke. Vol. V. XVIII religions. pp.615～722.
A Buddhist Bibliography - Albert J. Edmunds. Journal of Pali Text Society. 1902～1903 pp.1～60.
A Concise Summary of the Abhidhamma Pitaka - Nyanatiloka Thera. Buddhist Annual in Ceylon. 1932. pp.137～149.
A Hindu View of Nirvana - Hemendranath Sinha. The Buddhist Review. Vol. V. 1913. pp.133～141.
Amaravati: The Art and History of the Stupa and the Temple. Archaeological Series N0. 41. 1975. pp.28～42.
A New Buddhist Psychology: Moving Beyond Theravada and Mahayana – Maurits Kwee & Marja Taams. Horizons in Buddhist Psychology Practice, Research & Theory. 2006. pp.435～478.
A Simple Introduction to Abhidhamma - Ven. Narada. The Mahabodhi Centenary Commemorative Volume. pp.97～105.
Abhidhamma Abhivinaya - Hormer, I. B. Indian Historical Quarterly. 1941.Vol.12. pp.291～310.
Abhidhamma Literature in Burma - by Shwe Zan Aung. Journal Pali Text Society. (1910～12) pp.112～132.
Abhidhamma pitaka - N. Dutt. Indo-Asian Culture vol.2 (1953～1954) pp.256～258.
Abhidhamma Texts in Tibetan - A. C. Banerjee. Indian Historical Quarterly, vol.28 (1952) pp.373～378.
Abhidharma as Paradigm for Practice - Christopher Key Chapple. Pali Buddhism. Ed. Frank J. Hoffman. pp.79～101.
About Buddhist Nuns - Kalipada Mitra. Indian Antiquary. Vol. LI. 1922. pp.225～227.
A Buddhist Bibliography - A. J. Edmunds. Journal Pali Text Society. (1902～3) pp.1～60.
An Atlas of Abhidhamma Diagrams - Nanajivaka. Buddhist Studies Review 1. 1983-84. pp.110～114.
An Image of Woman in Old Buddhist Literature the Daughters of Mara - Nancy Falk. Women and Religion. Ed. Judith Plaskou and Joan Arnold. pp.105～112.
An Introduction to Buddhist Psychology and Psychotherapy - Sumana Ratnayaka. Symposium on Buddhist Studies. pp.82～111.
An Introduction to the Evolution of the Schools of Buddhism - N. Dutt. Journal of the Department of Letters. Vol. VIII. 1920. pp.247～265.
A Pali Chrestomathy - J. Takakusu. Journal of Pali Text Society. (1905) pp.160～162.
A Summary of the Seven Books of the Abhidhamma - Donald K. Swearer. Buddhism in Practice. pp. 336～342.
Archaeology Survey of Ceylon – S. Paranavitana. Annual Report on the Archaeology Survey of Ceylon for 1934. pp. J3～J23.
Aspects of Buddhist Social Philosophy - K. N. Jayatilleke. Wheel Publication. Nos.128/129. 1969. pp.1～24.
Attitudes toward Women and the Feminine in Early Buddhism - Alan Sponberg. Buddhism, Sexuality, and Gender. Ed by Jose Ignacio Cabezon. pp.3～36.

Bibliography of Asian Studies 1958 - Howard P. Linton. The Journal of Asian Studies. Vol. XVIII. 1959. pp.551～686.
Bibliography of Asian Studies 1959 - Howard P. Linton. The Journal of Asian Studies. Vol. XIX. 1960. pp.506～670.
Bibliography of Asian Studies 1960 - Howard P. Linton. The Journal of Asian Studies. Vol. XX. 1961. pp.583～761.
Bibliography of Asian Studies 1961 - Howard P. Linton. The Journal of Asian Studies. Vol. XXI. 1962. pp.551～686.
Bibliography of Asian Studies 1962 - Howard P. Linton. The Journal of Asian Studies. Vol. XXII. 1963. pp.1～219.
Bibliography of Asian Studies 1963 – Richard C. Howard. The Journal of Asian Studies. Vol. XXIII. 1964. pp.1～305.
Buddha-Kaya as an Idea: The Historical Study of its Origin and Growth – R. Kimura. Sir Ashutosh Mookerjee Silver Volume. V. III, pt. 3. pp.523～546.
Buddha Nirvana and Some Other Dates in Ancient Indian Chronology - H. C. Seth. Indian Culture. Vol. V. 1939. pp.305～317.
Buddhism: The Mahayana - E. Conze. The Concise Encyclopedia of Living Faiths. pp.296～320.
Buddhism: The Theravada - I. B. Horner. The Concise Encyclopedia of Living Faiths. pp.267～295.
Buddhism and Human Genetic Research. - Somparn Promta. http://them.polylog.org/6/fps-en.htm.
Buddhism and Suicide: The Case of Channa - Damien Keown. Download from Internet.
Buddhism and the Modern World - G. Dharmasiri. Narada Felicitation Volume. 1979. pp.89～103.
Buddhism and Woman - Dudley Wright. The Buddhist Review. Vol. III. 1911. pp.243～250.
Buddhism as a Philosophy of “Thusness” - J. Takakusu. Philosophy - East and West. Charles A. Moore. pp.69～108.
Buddhism in India - Roger R. Jackson. Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy. 1997. pp.318～348.
Buddhism in Sri Lanka and South-East Asia - Padmasiri de Silva and Trevor Ling. Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy. 1997. pp.394～413.
Buddhism in Tibetan - Donald S. Lopez. Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy. 1997. pp.371～393.
Buddhism in a Value - Changing Society – P. D. Premasiri. Bodhi Leaves. No. 148.
Buddhism of the One Great Vehicle (Mahayana) - S. Hanayama. Essays in East-West Philosophy - Charles A. Moore. 1951. pp.196～210.
Buddhist Abhidhamma - Taylor, C. A. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 1894. pp.560～561.
Buddhist and Social Problems - Alexandra David. Tr. by F. J. Payne. The Buddhist Review. Vol. II. 1910. pp.194～201.
Buddhist and the Contemporary World: The Problem of Social Action in an Urban Environment - Lewis R. Lancaster. Buddhist Ethics and Modern Society: An International Symposium. 1991. pp.347～353.
Buddhist Books and Texts: Canon and Canonization – Abhidharma – Rupert Gethin. Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 15. 2005. pp.10020～10023.
Buddhist Bronzes. The Golden Age of Sculpture in Sri Lanka Masterpieces of Buddhist and Hindu Bronzes.
Buddhist in Recent British Philosophy and Theology - Steven Collins. Buddhist Philosophy and Culture - Essay in Honour of N. A. Jayawickrema. pp.113～131.
Buddhist Literature: Exegesis and Hermeneutics - Luis O. Gomez. Encyclopaedia of Religion. Vol.2. pp.529～540.
Buddhist Literature: Survey of Texts - A. Hirakawa. Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 2. pp.504～529.
Buddhist Mental Therapy - Francis Story. The MahaBodhi. 1978. pp.219～228.
Buddhist Philosophy - Anagarika Dharmapala. The MahaBodhi. Vol. VXXXII. 1924. pp.101～104.
Buddhist Theory of Matter - Karunadasa, Y. The MahaBodhi. Vol.33. 1969.pp.137～149.
Buddhist Psychology: Theory and Therapy – Padmal de Silva. Western & Buddhist Psychology – Clinical Perspectives. 1996. pp.125～147.
Buddhist psychology: Theravada theory and practice - Padmal de Silva. Horizons in Buddhist Psychology. 2006. pp.53～73.
Building During the Role of the Early Muryan Dynasty. Indian Architecture. 1959.

Catalogue of Palm Leaf Manuscripts in the Library of the Colombo Museum - W. A. De Silva. Memoirs of the Colombo Museum. Vol. I. 1938. pp.113～119.
Chronology of the Pali Canon - B. C. Law. Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona. Vol. XII. 1931. pp.171～200.
Classification of Buddhist Morality - S. Tachibana. The Ethics of Buddhism. pp.41～71.
Cloning: Where Do the Major Religions Stand? - Ana Lita. http://www.humaniststudies.org.
Concerns and Emphases of Abhidhamma Education in Sri Lanka - Mahinda Palihawadana. Abhinandana - Papers on Indology Buddhism and Fine Arts a Felicitation Volume Presented to Jayadeva Tilakasiri. pp.90～100.
Consciousness and Matter - Dharmasena, C. B. The Wheel Publication. 1971. No.63/64. pp.1～32.
Contemporary Buddhist Philosophy - Frank J. Hoffman. Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy. 1997. pp.468～488.

Dhammapada – Arthur Stanley Bishop. Ceylon Buddhism: Being the Collected Writings of Daniel John Gogerly.
Dharma and Abhidharma - Johannes Bronkhorst. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African. Vol. 48. pp.305～320.
Disease and Therapy from the Buddhist Perspective – Prof. P. D. Premasiri. Buddhist Studies in Honour of Venerable Lirindigalle Dhammaratana. 2007. pp.177～189.
Disputed Dharmas Early Buddhist Theories an Existence – Collett Cox. The International Institute for Buddhist Studies, Tokyo. 1995.
Doctrine, Discipline, and Dispute: A History Analysis of Early Buddhist Schools - G.A. Somaratne.
Doctrines of the Sarvastivada School - A. C. Banerjee. The Maha Bodhi. Vol. 55. pp.22～23.
Doctrines of the Sarvastivada School of Buddhism - N. Dutt. Indian Historical Quarterly. 1938. pp. 114, 799.
Dramatic Intervention: Human Rights from a Buddhist Perspective - Peter D. Hershock. Philosophy East & West Vol.50, Number 1. 2000. pp.9～33.

Early Buddhist Concept of Ethical Knowledge: A Philosophy Analysis - P. D. Premasiri. Buddhist Philosophy and Culture - Essay in Honour of N. A. Jayawickrema. pp.37～70.
Early Buddhist Kinship - Balkrishna G. Gokhale. Journal of Asian Studies. 1966-67. Vol.26. pp.15～22.
Early Buddhist Monks and Nuns - B. C. Law. Indological Studies. Part. II, 1952. pp.1～30.
Economic Conditions According to Early Buddhist Literature - C. A. F. Rhys Davids. The Cambridge History of India. 1922. Vol. I. pp.198～219.
Emergence of the Sarvastivada School - A. C. Banerjee. The Maha Bodhi. Vol. 51. 1943. pp.73～74.
Emile Durkheim on Suicide in Buddhism - Arvind Sharma. Buddhist Studies Review. 1987. Vol.4. No.1. pp.119～126.
Environmental Problematic in the Buddhist Context - Kenneth K. Inada. Philosophy East and West. Vol.37. No.2. 1987. pp.135～149.
Ethics and Morality - M. Anesaki. Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. 1925. Vol.5. 447-455.

From Category to Ontology: the Evolution of Dharma in Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma - Collett, Cox. Journal of Indian Philosophy. 2004. Vol. 32, pp.543-597.

Gotama Buddha's Problem Situation - R. Gombrich. Theravada Buddhism. pp.32～59.
Guardstones and Moonstones.

Happiness and Suffering in Buddhist Psychology – Han de Wit. Western & Buddhist Psychology – Clinical Perspectives. 1996. pp.149～174.
How Buddhism Came to Ceylon - Teresa Strickla. Calcutta Review. Vol. XXIV. 1927. pp.335～350.
Human Rights and Religious Anthropologies in a Changing World - Padmasiri de Silva. Buddhism, Ethics and Society. pp.137～148.

I am Just One Scientist? - Matt Donnelly. Science & Theology News.
Introduction to the History of Early Buddhist Schools – R. Kimura. Sir Ashutosh Mookerjee Silver Volume. V. III, pt. 3. pp.87～128.
Is There Really "Esoteric" Buddhism? - Richard D. Mcbride. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies. Vol.27. Number 2. 2004. pp.329～356.
Introduction - Diana Y. Paul. Women in Buddhism - Images of the Feminine in the Mahayana Tradition. pp. x～xxviii.
Introduction Gandhara. pp.13～45.

Knowledge and Reality in Buddhism - Hajime Nakamura. Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy. 1997. pp.435～451.

Literature - Abhidhamma-pitaka - A.A. Macdonell. Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. Vol.8. p.87.
Logic and Language in Buddhism - S. R. Bhatt. Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy. 1997. pp.414～434.

Magical beliefs and Superstitions in Buddhism - Mathuralal Sharma. The Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society. Vol. XVII. 1931. pp.149～161.
Mahayana Buddhism - Ven. Silacara. The Journal of the Burma Research Society. Vol. VIII. Pt.1. 1918. pp.15～20.
Mahayana in the Making – B. M. Barua. Sir Ashutosh Mookerjee Silver Volume. V. III, pt. 3. pp.163～180.
Mahayana Metal Sculpture in Classical Sinhala Art with Special Reference to Some Icons Exhibition in the Colombo National Museum – A. D. T. Edward Perera. Spozia Zeylanica. 1971. pp. 449～477.
Memoir on the History of Buddhism - Edward E. Salisbury. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. I. 1849. pp.81～135.
Metapsychology of the Abhidharma - Shanta Ratnayaka. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies. 1980～1981. Vol.3-4. pp.76～88.
Morality - Edward Conze. Buddhist Scriptures. 1959. pp.69～73.
Morals and Society in Buddhism - Stewart McFarlane. Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy. 1997. pp.452～467.
Mr. Rhys Davids Dialogue with Psychology - T. R. Havens. Philosophy East and West 1. 1964. pp.51～58.

Nagarjuna - Chr. Lindtner. Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy. 1997. pp.349～370.
Nirvana According to the Tibetan Tradition - E. Obermilier. Indian Historical Quarterly. 1934. Vol. X. pp.211～257.
Nibbana and Abhidhamma - L. S. Cousins. Buddhist Studies Review 1. 1983-84. pp.95～109.
Non-Canonical Pali Literature - B. C. Law. Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona. Vol. XIII. 1932. pp.97～143.

On the Abhidharma Ontology - Paul M. Williams. Journal of Indian Philosophy. 1981, vol.9. pp. 227～257.
On the Problem of Nirvana - F. Otto Schrader. Journal of Pali Text Society. 1904～1905. pp.157～170.
On the Relationships between Early Buddhism and Other Contemporary Systems - A. K. Warder. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 1956. Vol.18. pp.43～63.
On the Tradition of Pali Texts in India, Ceylon and Burma - Oskar Von Hinuber. Buddhism in Ceylon and Studies on Religious Syncretism in Buddhist Counties - Heinz Bechert. 1978. pp.48～57.
Origin of the Buddhist Stupa – Anagarika B. Govinda. Some Aspects of Stupa Symbolism. 1940. pp.1～15.

Pali Chronicles - B. C. Law. Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institude, Poona. Vol. XIII. 1932. pp.250～299.
Pali Oral Literature - L.S. Cousins. Buddhist Studies: Ancient and Modern. pp.1～11.
Psychology Aspects of Theravada Buddhist Meditation Training: Cultivating I-Less Self - Peter Harvey. Recent Researches in Buddhist Studies Essay in Honour of Prof. Y. Karunadasa. pp.341～365.

Reason and Intuition in Buddhist Philosophy - D. T. Suzuki. Essays in East-West Philosophy - Charles A. Moore. 1951. pp.17～48.
Relic-Chamber Paintings.
Religious Conditions in the Age of Buddha - G. C. Pande. Studies in the Origins of Buddhism. pp.310～368.
Religious Suicide in Early Buddhism - E. Lamotte. Buddhist Studies Review. 1987. Vol.4. No.1. pp.105～118.
Review of the Vedic Background - G. C. Pande. Studies in the Origins of Buddhism. pp.251～309.

Santideva and the Bodhisattva Ideal - Ven. H. Saddhatissa. Buddhist Philosophy and Culture - Essay in Honour of N. A. Jayawickrema. pp.93～99.
Sarvastivada – Nathrnal Tatia. The Nava-Nalanda-Mahavihara Research Publication Vol. II. pp.75～137.
Sarvastivada and Mulasarvastivada - Collett Cox. Encyclopedia of Buddhism. (2004) 2 Volumes. Edited By: Robert E. Buswell. pp.750～751.
Sarvastivada School of Buddhism – N. Dutt. Sir Asutosh Mookerje Silver Jubilee Volumes. Vol. III Orientalia – Part 2. (1925) pp.589～602.
Six Reasons for the Study of Buddhism - Albert J. Edmunds. The Buddhist Review. Vol. III. 1911. pp.241～242.
Some Abhidharma Problems Consciousness as the Perceive - N. Aiyaswami Sastri. Adyar Library Bulletin. (1954) vol.18, pp.217～228.
Some Aspects of Reality as Taught by Theravada (Hinayana) Buddhism - G. P. Malalasekera. Essays in East-West Philosophy - Charles A. Moore. 1951. pp.178～195.
Some Observations on Buddhist Thoughts on Human Cloning - Jens Schlieter.http://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/kbe/Buddhists%20on%20Cloning.pdf.
South India as a Centre of Pali Buddhism - B. C. Law. Dr. S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar Commemoration. Volume 1936. pp.239～245.
Studies in Buddhist Dogma (Trikaya) - Louis De La Vallee Poussin. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.1906. pp.943～977.
Suicide and Emotional Ambivalence: An Early Buddhist Perspective - Padmasiri De Silva. Pali Buddhism. pp.117～132.

The Abhayagiri School’s View Concerning the Number of Jatakas and the Enumeration of Books of the Abhidhamma Pitaka - B. M. Barua. Indian Culture. Vol. V. 1939. pp.324～326.
The Abhidhamma Literature - Hajime Nakamura. Indian Buddhism - A Survey with Bibliographical Notes. pp.104～113.
The Abhidhamma Literature of the Sarvastivada - J. Takakusu. Journal of Pali Text Society. (1904～5) pp.67～146.
The Abhidharma Literature Pali and Chinese - Takakusu, J. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 1905. pp.160～162.
The Abhidhamma Pitaka - Dutt, N. “Indian-Asian Culture. 1953～1954. Vol.2. pp.256～258.
The Abhidhamma-Pitaka and Commentaries - Mrs. Rhys Davids. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 1923, pp.243～250.
The Abhidharma Pitaka of the Sarvastivada Sect - A. C. Banerjee. The MahaBodhi. 1954. Vol.62. pp.355～359.
The Abhidharma: The Origins, Growth and Development of a Literary Tradition. Abhidharmakosabhasyam by Louis de La Vallee Poussin, English Translation by Leo M. Pruden. pp.XXX～53.
The Abhidhamma Theory of Pannatti: The Category of the Nominal and the Conceptual - Y. Karunadasa. Buddhist Philosophy and Culture - Essay in Honour of N. A. Jayawickrema. pp.71～92.
The Bioethics of Interdependence: Shin Buddhist Attitudes on Human Cloning – Naoki Nabeshima.
The Buddha - Ninian Smart. Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy. 1997. pp.305～317.
The Buddhist Conceptions of “Subject” and “Object” and their Moral Implications - David J. Kalupahana. Philosophy East & West. Vol. XXXVIII. No.1 1988. pp.290～306.
The Buddhist Canon and the Canon of Buddhist Studies - Oliver Freiberger. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies. Vol.27. Number 2. 2004. pp.261～283.
The Buddhist Doctrine of Nibbana - Ven. Parawahera Vajiranana Thera. The Wheel Publication. 1971. No.165/166. pp.1～49.
The Buddhist Perspective on Respect for Persons - Peter Harvey. Buddhist Studies Review. Vol.4. No.1. 1987. pp.31～46.
The Buddhist Philosophy of the Real - G. R. T. Ross. The Journal of the Burma Research Society. Vol. VIII. Pt.1. 1918. pp.57～63.
The Buddhist View of Human Cloning - Courtney S. Campbell. http://www.tomwmiller.com/tcsnwebpage_073.htm.
The Concept of Equality in the Theravada Buddhist tradition. Padmasiri de Silva. Buddhism, Ethics and Society. pp.115～136.
The Concept of Rupa in the Dhammasangani - Tiwary, Mahesh. Biblitheco Indo-Buddhica - Amala Prajna Aspects of Buddhist Studies: Prof. P. V. Bapat Felicitation Volume. 1989.
The Concept of the State as Reflected in the Pali Canon - K. Ariyasena. Buddhist Philosophy and Culture - Essay in Honour of N. A. Jayawickrema. pp.101～111.
The Concept of Vinnana in Theravada Buddhism - O. H. De A. Wijesekera. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol.84. 1964. pp.254～259.
The Consecration of a Buddhist Image (佛像的開光) - Richard Gombrich. Journal of Asian Studies. 1966-67. Vol.26. pp.23～36.
The Discovery of the Birthplace of the Buddha - L. A. Waddell. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 1897. pp.644～651.
The Doctrine of the Buddha - Th. Stcherbatsky. Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies. Vol.1930～1932. pp.867～896.
The Early History of the Buddhists – T. W. Rhys Davids. The Cambridge History of India. 1922. Vol. I. pp.171～197.
The Female Mendicant in Buddhist Sri Lanka - Tessa Bartholomeusz. Buddhism, Sexuality, and Gender. Ed by Jose Ignacio Cabezon. pp.37～61.
The First Argument for Sarvastivada - David Bastow. Asian Philosophy. Vol. 5 No. 2 Oct.1995 pp.109～125.
The "Five Points" of Mahadeva and the Kathavatthu - Louis De La Vallee Poussin. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.1910. pp.413～423.
"The Hand Treatise"《掌珍論》A work of Aryadeva - F. W. Thomas and H. Ui. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.1918. pp.269～310.
The Koan of Cloning: A Buddhist Perspective on the Ethics of Human Cloning Technology. - Falls, Evelyn. et el. http://www.parkridgecenter.org.
The Mahasanghika School of Buddhism - N. Dutt. Journal of the Department of Letters. Vol. VIII. 1922. pp.117～129.
The Mahayana View of Buddha - H. Ui. The Buddhist Review. Vol. IX. 1917. pp.26～29.
The Matikas: Memorization, Mindfulness and the List - Rupert Genthin. In the Mirror of Memory: Relections on Mindfulness and Remembrance in Indian and TIbetan Buddhism. pp.149～172.
The Meaning of Dharma and Abhidharma - A. Hirakawa. Indianisme et Bouddhisme, Melanges offerts a Mgr Etienne Lamotte. pp.159～176.
The Meaning of Nirvana - Joshi, L. M. Studies in Pali & Buddhism - A Memorial Volume in Honor of Bhikkhu J. Kashyap. 1979. pp.189～195.
The Meaning of the “Om-Mani-Padme-Hum” Formula - Rev. A. H. Francke. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.1915. pp.397～404.
The Message of Buddhism. The Buddhist Review. Vol. II. 1910. pp.307～314.
The Origin of the Buddhist Sutras and their Languages - Kogen Mizuno. Journal of Asian Studies. 1984. Vol.1 No.2. pp.1～33.
The Patthana and the Development of the Theravada Abhidhamma – L. S. Cousins. Journal of the Pali Text Society. Vol.9. 1981. pp.22～46.
The Problem of Knowledge and the Four Schools of Later Buddhism- Durgacharan Chatterji. Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona. Vol. XII. 1931. pp.205～215.
The Psychology of Buddhism - Joseph Bryce. The Buddhist Review. Vol. IV. 1912. pp.241～254.
The Psychology and Philosophy of Buddhism - Simon Hewavitarne. The Buddhist Review. Vol. V. 1913. pp.24～31.
The Rediscovery of Buddhism - J. T. Lloyd. The Buddhist Review. Vol. IV. 1912. pp.270～278.
The Role of Pali in Early Sinhalese Buddhism - K. R. Norman. Buddhism in Ceylon and Studies on Religious Syncretism in Buddhist Counties - Heinz Bechert. 1978. pp.28～47.
The Sarvastivada Sect - A. C. Banerjee. The Calcutta Review. Vol. 175, (1965) pp.1～4.
The Scope and Contemporary Significance of the Five Precepts - Lily de Silva. Buddhist Ethics and Modern Society: An International Symposium. 1991. pp.143～157.
The Sects of the Buddhists – T. W. Rhys Davids. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 1891. pp.409～422.
The Sign, the Path, and the Fetters – T. W. Rhys Davids. Buddhism: Its History and Literature. 1926. pp.118～152.
The Suicide Problem in the Pali Canon - Martin G. Wilshire. The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies. 1983. Vol.6. pp.124～140.
The Ten Fetters of Existence – F. M. Rajakaruna. The Light of the Dhamma. Vol. III. 1955. pp.18～28.
The Theravada-Buddhist View of History - B. G. Gokhale. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol.85. 1965. pp.354～360.
The Theravada School of Buddhism – N. Dutt. Journal of the Department of Letters. Vol. VIII. 1922. pp.130～140.
The Two Nirvanadhatus According to the Vibhasa - Louis De La Vallee Poussin. Indian Historical Quarterly. 1930. Vol. VI. pp.137～149.
The Vedalla Sutta: As Illustrating the Psychological Basis of Buddhist Ethics - Caroline A. Foley. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 1894. pp.321～333.
The Vinaya and Abhidhamma Pitakas of the Pali Canon - N. Dutt. Indo-Asian Culture 2. 1953～54. pp.255～258.
Theravada Pali Tipitaka: With Its Commentaries, Sub-Commentaries, and English Translations - Ven. Dickwela Piyananda. The MahaBodhi. 1976. Vol. 84. pp.201～210.
Tradition Definitions of the Term Dhamma - John Ross Carter. Philosophy East and West. Vol.26. 1976. pp.329～337.
Treatment of Rupa in the Abhidhamma System - Barua, Sri. D. The MahaBodhi. 1950. Vol.58. pp.169～173.
Two Theravada Traditions of the Meaning of “The Word of the Buddha” - George D. Bond. The MahaBodhi. 1975. Vol.83. pp.402～413.
Types of Consciousness in the Abhidhamma - Kashyap. J. Bhikkhu. The MahaBodhi. 1941. Vol.49. pp.235～240.

What is Nibbana - Jagarabhiwamsa, U. Bhikkhu. The MahaBodhi. 1977. Vol.41. pp.20～24.
Who Found Buddha’s Birthplace? - L. A. Waddell. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.1898. pp.199～203.
Women in Buddhism - Kajiyama Yuichi. The Eastern Buddhist. 1982. Vol.15. pp.53～70.

中文期刊

佛教之生命倫理觀 –以「複製人」與「胚胎幹細胞」為例–釋惠敏。中華佛學學報，第十五期 2002年7月。頁457～470。
略論佛教知識體系與主題詞(中之二) - 郭忠生。

Commemoration Volume on Buddhist Studies

2007-12-16T19:12:00.000-08:00

A collection of the Felicitation and Commemoration Volume - Buddhist Studies

1. Adikari, A. 1991. Sambhasha: Mahabodhi Centenary Commemorative Volume. Ministry of Education and Higher Education

2. Ahir, D. C. (ed.) 2004. Buddhist Art, History and Culture: Essays by Prof L. M. Joshi. Eastern Book Corporation.

3. Anderson, Carol; Mrozik, Susanne and Rajapakse, R. M. W. (eds.) 2007. Embedded Religions: Essays in Honor of Prof. W. S. Karunatillake. Colombo: S. Godage and Brothers.

4. Balasooriya, Somaratna, et al. (eds.) 1980. Buddhist Studies in Honour of Walpola Rahula. London: Gordon Fraser.

5. Barker Eileen, Beckford James A. and Dobbelaere Karel, (eds.) 1993. Secularization, Rationalism and Sectarianism: Essays in Honour of Bryan R. Wilson. Oxford; Clarendon Press.

6. Bhandarkar, D. R. et al. (eds.) 1945. B. C. Law Volume. 2 volumes. Calcutta.

7. Bruhn, Klaus and Albrecht Wezler. (eds.) 1981. Studien zum Jainismus und Buddhismus: Gedenkschrift fur Ludwig Alsdorf. Wiesbaden.

8. Chappell, David W. (ed.) 2003. Socially Engaged Spirituality: Essays in Honor of Sulak Sivaraksa on His 70th Birthday. Bangkok: Sathirakoses-Nagapradipa Foundation, 2003. Reprinted in New York: Routledge, 2004.

9. Chowdhury, Hemendu Bikash (ed.) 1989. Dr. Beni Madhab Barua Birth Centenary Volume (1888-1948). Calcutta: Bauddha Dharmankur Sabha.

10. Committee for the Felicitation of Dr. Hojun Nagasaki's Seventieth Birthday (eds.) 2005. Buddhism and Jainism. Essays is Honour of Dr. Hojun Nagasaki on his Seventieth Birthday. Kyoto: Heirakuji Shoten.

11. Cousins, L.; Kunst, A.; Norman, K. R. (eds.) 1974. Buddhist Studies in Honour of I. B. Horner. Holland: D. Reidel Publ. Co.

12. Coward, Harold; Sivaraman, Krishna (eds.) 1977. Revelation in Indian Thought: A Festschrift in Honour of Prof. T.R.V. Murti. Emeryville: Dharma Publications.

13. Crusz, Robert; Fernand, Marshal and Tilakaratne, Asanga. (eds.) 2004. Encounters with the Word: Essays to Honour Aloysius Pieris S. J. on His 70th Birthday. Colombo: Ecumenical Institute for Study and Dialogue.

14. Dhammapala, Gatare, Gombrich, Richard and Norman, K. R. 1984. Buddhist Studies in Honour of Hammalava Saddhatissa. Sri Lanka: Hammalava Saddhatissa Felicitation Volume Committee, University of Sri Jayewardenepura.

15. Dokic, Sinisa. (ed.) 1997. Sudesika: Festschrift Bhikkhu Nanajivako (Cedomil Veljacic). Zagreb: Izdanja Antibarbarus.

16. Festschrift Charles Rockwell Lanman. (ed.) 1929. Indian Studies in honor of Charles Rockwell Lanman. Harward University Press.

17. Frauwallner, Erich. (ed.) 1968. Beiträge Zur Geistesgeschichte Indiens: Festischrift Für Erich Frauwallner. Wien: Aus Anlass Seines.

18. Fremont, Olle Qvarnström. (ed.) 2003. Jainism and Early Buddhism: Essays in Honor of Padmanabh S. Jaini. California: Asian Humanities Press.

19. Gopal, Lallanji. (eds.) 1977. D. D. Kosambi Commemoration Volume. Banaras Hindu University.

20. Goudriaan, Teun. (ed.) 1992. Ritual and Speculation in Early Tantrism Studies in Honor of André Padoux. Edited by Albany, N.Y.

21. Griffiths, Paul J. and Keenan, John P. (eds.) 1990. Buddha Nature: A Festschrift in Honor of Minoru Kiyota. Tokyo: Buddhist Books International.

22. Hartmann, J.-U. and P. Kieffer-Pülz (eds.) 1997. Bauddhavidyasudhakara: Studies in Honour of Heinz Bechert on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday. Swisttal-Odendorf.

23. Haynes, Deborah J.; James D. Smith III, and Janet F. Carlson, (eds.) 2006. The Subjective Eye: Essay in Culture, Religion, and Gender in Honor of Margaret R. Miles. Princeton Theological Monograph Series 59 (Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications.

24. Herausgegeben Von Otto Stein and Wilhelm Gampert (eds.) 1933. Festschrift Moriz Winternitz. Leipzig: Otto Harrassowitz.

25. Hercus, L. A. and et al., (eds.) 1982. Indological and Buddhist Studies: Volume in Honour of Professor J. W. de Jong on His Sixtieth Birthday. Canberra: Faculty of Asian Studies.

26. Hirakawa Akira Hakase Koki Kinenkai (ed.) 1985. Indian Thought and Buddhism: Essays in honor of Dr. Hirakawa Akira. Tokyo.

27. Hino, S. and Wada, T. (eds.) 2004. Three Mountains and Seven Rivers: Prof. Musashi Tachikawa’s Felicitation Volume. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.

28. Holt, John C. and Kinnard, Jacob N. Constituting Communities: Essays on Theravada Traditions in Honor of Frank E. Reynolds. (Forthcoming).

29. Jash, Pranabananda (ed.) 2002. Perspectives of Buddhist Studies: Giuseppe Tucci Birth Centenary Volume. Eastern Book Corporation.

30. Jha, V. N. (ed.) 1991. Kalyanamitta: Prof. Hajime Nakamura Felicitation Volume. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited.

31. Kalupahana, David J. and Weerarante, W. G. (eds.) 1987. Buddhist Philosophy and Culture: Essays in Honor of N. A. Jayawickrame. Colombo.

32. Karunadasa, Y. (ed.) 1990. Ananda: Papers on Buddhism and Indology: A Felicitation Volume to Ananda W. P. Guruge on his 60th Birthday. Colombo: The Felicitation Volume Editorial.

33. Karunaratne, K. P. (ed.) 1967. Olcott Commemoration Volume. Ceylon: Olcott Commemoration Society.

34. Kawamura, Leslie. (ed.) 1977. Buddhist Thought and Asian Civilization: Essays in Honour of H. V. Guenther. California: Dharma Publishing.

35. Keown, Damien. (ed.) 2005. Buddhist Studies from India to America: Essays in Honor of Charles S. Prebish. Taylor & Francis Ltd.

36. King, Sallie B. and Ingram, Paul O. (eds.) 1999. The Sound of Liberating Truth: Buddhist-Christian, in Honor of Frederick J. Streng. UK: Curzon Press.

37. Labuhengoda, Candaratana Ven. (ed.) 1967. Sarada: Wilhelm Geiger Commemoration Volume. Colombo.

38. Lancaster, Lewis and Luis O. Gomez, (eds.) 1977. Prajñāpāramitā and Related Systems: Studies in Honor of Edward Conze. Berkeley: Buddhist Studies Series.

39. Li Zheng; Jiang Zhong-sin. (eds.) 1991. Papers in Honour of Prof. Dr. Ji Xianlin on the Occasion of His 80th Birthday. Beijing: Peking University Press.

40. Ligeti, Louis. (ed.) 2000. Tibetan and Buddhist Studies: Commemorating the 200th Anniversary of the birth of Alexander Csoma De Koros. 2 vols. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal.

41. Liow, Benny. (ed.) 1999. K. Sri Dhammanada Felicitation: Essays in Honour of His 80th Birthday. Kuala Lumpur: Buddhist Gem Fellowship.

42. Mani, B. R. and Saran, S. C. 2006. Purabharati: Studies in Early Historical Archaeology and Buddhism: Commemoration Volume in Respect of Prof. B. P. Sinha. Delhi : Sharada Publ. House.

43. Masefield, Pater and Wiebe, Donald. (eds.) 1994. Aspects of Religion: Essays in Honour of Ninian Smart. New York: Peter Lang.

44. Mayeda, Egaku (ed.) 1993. Studies in Original Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism in Commemoration of late Professor Dr. Fumimaro Watanabe. Kyoto: Nagata Bunshodo.

45. Nagatomi, M. et al. (eds.). 1979. Sanskrit and Indian Studies: Essays in honor of D.H.H. Ingalls. Dordrecht.

46. Nakamura, H. Hirakawa, A. and Tamaki, K. (eds.) Commemoration Volume for Kogen Mizuno on the Occasion of His Sixtieth Birthday. Tokyo.

47. Nakano, Gisho (ed.) 1965. Studies of Esoteric Buddhism and Tantrism: Festschrift in Commemoration of the 150th Anniversary of the Founding of Koyasan. Japan: Koyasan.

48. Narain, A. K. (ed.) 1979. Studies in Pali and Buddhism: A Memorial Volume in Honor of Bhikkhu Jagdish Kashyap. Delhi.

49. Narendra, N. L. (ed.) 1938. Winternitz Memorial Number: Dedicated to the Revered Memory of Prof. Dr. M. Winternitz. Calcutta.

50. Navendra, N. Law, (ed.) 1940. Louis De La Vallee Poussin Memorial Volume. Calcutta: Calcutta Oriental Press.

51. Newland, Guy. (ed.) 2001. Changing Minds: Contribution to the Study of Buddhism and Tibet in Honor of Jeffrey Hopkins. NY: Snow Lion Publications.

52. Palihawadana, M. et al (eds.) 1991. Abhinandana: Papers on Indology Buddhism and Fine Arts: A Felicitation Volume Presented to Jayadeva Tilasiri. Colombo: The Felicitation Volume Editorial Committee.

53. Piyadassi Thera. (ed.) 1979. A Felicitation Volume Presented to The Ven. Narada Mahathera. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.

54. Pollamure Sorata Thera, Lakshman Perera, and Karl Goonesena 1992. (eds.) Buddhist Essays: A Memorial Volume in Honour of Venerable Hammalawa Saddhatissa. London: Sri Saddhatissa International Buddhist Centre.

55. Premasiri, P. D. (ed.) 2002. Buddhist Studies Essays in Honour of Prof. Lily de Silva. Peradeniya: Department of Pali and Buddhist, University of Peradeniya.

56. Prematilleke, Leelananda, Indrapala, Karthigesu and Leeuw. J. E. van Lohuizen-de. (eds.) 1978. Senarat Paranavitana Commemoration Volume. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

57. Publication Committee. (ed.) 2002. Buddhist and Indian Studies in Honour of Professor Sodo Mori. Hamamatsu: Kokusai Bukkyoto Kyokai.

58. Puligandla, R. and Miller, D. L. (eds.) 1996. Buddhism and the Emerging World Civilization: Essays in Honor of Nolan Pliny Jacobson. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.

59. Ratnayaka, Sumana. (ed.) 2007. Buddhist Studies in Honour of Venerable Kirindigalle Dhammaratana. Sri Lanka: Sridevi Printers.

60. Samtani, N. H. (ed.) 1987. Śramana-Vidyā: Studies in Buddhism: Prof. Jagannath Upadhyaya Commemoration Volume. Varanasi: Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies.

61. Samtani, N. H. (ed.) 1989. Amalaprajna: Aspects of Buddhist Studies: Prof. P. V. Bapat Felicitation Volume. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications.

62. Samten, J. and Shastri, L Norbu (eds.) Truth and Nonviolence: Essays in Honour of Samdhong Rinpoche. Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies Press. Reprinted in Empty Words, New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.

63. Sanghasen Singh (ed.) Buddhism in Comparative Light: Acharya Anukul Chandra Banerjee Commemoration Volume. Delhi, 1999.

64. Schopen, Gregory and Harrison, Paul. (eds.) Suryacandraya: Essays in Honor of Akira Yuyama. Swistal-Odendorf: Indica et Tibetica Verlag.

65. Schopen, Gregory and Shinohara, Koichi. (eds.) 1992. From Benares to Beijing: Essays in Honour of Dr. Jan Yin-hua. Ontario: Mosaic Press.

66. Sharma, Ram Karan (ed.) 1993. Research in Indian and Buddhist Philosophy. Essays in Honour of Professor Alex Wayman. Delhi.

67. Sivaraksa, Sulak et al (eds.) 1990. Radical Conservatism: Buddhism in the Contemporary World: Articles in Honour of Bhikkhu Buddhadasa’s 84th Birthday Anniversary. Bangkok: Thai Inter-Religious Commission for Development/ International Network of Engaged Buddhists.

68. Sivaraksa, Sulak et al (eds.) 1999. Socially Engaged Buddhism for the New Millennium: Essays in Honor of the Ven. Phra Dhammapitaka (Bhikkhu P.A. Payutto) on His 60th Birthday Anniversary. Bangkok: Sathirakoses-Nagapradipa Foundation & Foundation for Children.

69. Tanaka, Kenneth K. and Nasu, Eisho (eds.) 1998. Engaged Pure Land Buddhism: Challenges Facing Shinshû in the Contemporary World: Essays in Honor of Professor Alfred Bloom. Berkeley: Wisdom Ocean Publications.

70. The Celebration Committee. (ed.) 1934. M. Anesaki Commemoration Volume: The Twenty-Five Anniversary of the Foundation of the Professorship of Science of Religion in Tokyo Imperial University. Tokyo: Herald Press.

71. The Editorial Committee. (ed.) 1922. Sir Asutosh Mookerjee Silver Jubilee Volume. Orientalia. 3 Vols III, parts 1-3. Calcutta: Calcutta University Press.

72. The Editorial Committee. (ed.) 1951. Problems in Indian Philosophy and Buddhism: In Honor of Dr. Hakuju Ui. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.

73. The Editorial Committee. (ed.) 1955. Studies in Indology and Buddhism Presented in Honor of Susumu Yamaguchi. Kyoto.

74. The Editorial Committee. (ed.) 1985. Buddhism and Its Relation to other Religions. Essays in Honour of Dr. Shōzen Kumoi on his Seventieth Birthday. Kyoto.

75. The Editorial Committee. (ed.) 1989. Indian Philosophy and Buddhism: Essays in Honour of Professor Kotatsu Fujita on His Sixtieth Birthday. Kyoto: Heirakuji shoten

76. The Editorial Committee. (ed.) 1991. Studies in Buddhism and Culture: In Honour of Professor Dr. Egaku Mayeda on his Sixty-fifth Birthday. Tokyo: Sankibo Busshorin.

77. The Editorial Committee. (ed.) 1993. Encounter of Wisdom between Buddhism and Science: Essays in Honour of Prof. K. Tsukamoto on his Sixtieth Anniversary. Tokyo.

78. The Editorial Committee. (ed.) 1996. Indian Thought and Buddhist Culture. Essays in Honour of Prof. Junkichi Imanishi on His Sixtieth Birthday. Tokyo.

79. The Editorial Committee. (ed.) 2002. Early Buddhism and Abhidharma Thought. In Honor of Doctor Hajime Sakurabe on His Seventy-seventh Birthday. Kyoto: Heirakuji Shoten.

80. Tilakaratne, Asanga and K. Dhammajoti. (eds.) 1997. Recent Researches in Buddhist Studies: Essays in Honour of Professor Y. Karunadasa. Colombo: Karunaratne.

81. Tilakasiri, J. (ed.) 1970. Anjali: Papers on Indology and Buddhism. A Felicitation Volume Presented to Oliver Hector de Alwis Wijesekera on His Sixtieth Birthday. Peradeniya.

82. Tiwari, Ramesh Chandra and Nath, Krishna. (eds.) 1995. Universal Responsibility: A Collection of Essays to Honour Tenzin Gyatso, the XIVth Dalai Lama. New Delhi.

83. Wagle, N. K. and Watanabe, F. (eds.) 1993. Studies on Buddhism in Honour of Prof. A. K. Warder. Toronto: University of Toronto.

84. Wijesekera, O. H. de A. (ed.) 1976. Malalasekera Commemoration Volume. The Malalasekera Commemoration Volume Editorial Committee.

85. Yamaguchi, Susumu. (ed.) 1960. Buddhism and Culture: Dedicated to Dr. D. T. Suzuki in Commemoration of his Ninetieth Birthday. Tokyo.

略談社會和佛教價值觀

2007-12-16T08:16:00.000-08:00

何謂價值觀? 簡言之，價值觀是指人們對人生的基本態度和看法，包括對人生目的，以及人生意義的基本觀感和態度。人生的意義、價值、目的、理想、信念、追求等問題，由於人們所處的社會地位、生活環境和文化素養而有所不同，因而形成了不同的人生觀。在當今社會，追逐物質利益成為多數人唯一的生活目標。

現在的社會價值觀和人生價值觀普遍的認同是：以獲取財富的多少決定一個人社會地位或家庭地位，並以此作為衡量一個人是否成功的唯一標準。另外，國際社會對一個經濟發達國家與否，以國民(GNP)和國內(GDP)生產總值做為廣泛衡量總體經濟活動的指標，幾乎所有的經濟指標都和國民與國內生產毛額有相關性，是一項相當重要的經濟標準。人們普遍沒有信仰，缺少追求精神的層面，甘於庸庸碌碌。在這種社會風氣下，為了獲得財富而不擇手段成為時尚，甚至不惜突破良知與道德底線而淪為罪犯。一些追求高尚、清淨、健康的精神生活的宗教信仰反之被看成為另類一族，成為被人冷諷熱嘲的對象!

反觀，隨著當今科學、科技不斷蓬勃的闊展，不難觀察到，其實是科技引領了人類的價值觀，升為萬物之靈卻不斷依賴著科學的研究、科技的發展，認為這就是價值觀。然而，必須要問的是，這些所謂發展國家，他們的社會問題──槍枝的氾濫，人心的動盪、不安等等，遠超過所謂未開發國家。科技的日新月異自有促進社會發展的一面；然而必需更為深入體認到：這些過度耗費、使用不當所跟隨而來巨大的傷害又有誰能消除？

現今，另外一個重大課題就是圍繞著全球暖化的危機。聯合國不斷緊急召開相關的會議，以尋覓解決的方案及因應措施。我們必須要再一次提問：究竟這問題誰應該負責任? 報告指出：生活在地球上的人類都將受到影響，不過落後國家擁有較少資源，所受衝擊更大。換句話說，擔負起這項危機處理的使命，每個人都責無旁貸！從另外一個角度來談，已發展和發展中國家勢必要負起更大的責任──此二者可說身居決策者的地位。我們希望這些國家能對大自然界賦予更多的保護，認真地看待此一議題。

當然，佛法並沒有否定科學和科技的貢獻。佛法所提倡的價值觀是建設在自我的提升，而不要做物欲的奴隸，不必過於執著世間名利等；活著，不是為了財富的累積、權位的攀升，而應該更重視自我的心靈的淨化。學習佛法就是要去除貪、瞋、癡三毒，提升自己的人格品德，服務人群，奉獻社會，追求高尚的生活旨趣──正面、積極的人生意義也就在此。佛教並沒有所謂神秘的宗教色彩，其所能教導我們的是如何達到內心的淨化和提升，不流於外在物欲、名利的追逐。佛法的教育是架構在以人類為本的佛法，《增壹阿含經》說﹕「諸佛皆出人間，終不在天上成佛也。」佛法的價值觀是表現在思想行為上。由正知正見引導出正行，能成就對自己、對社群、對國家乃至一切眾生都有意義的事情，才足以稱為真正的價值。從這種以智慧為導向，不再專以自我為中心，為我的家庭、我的故鄉、我的國家著想，而能從整體人類、一切眾生的立場考量任何一件事務。如印順導師所說：這在佛法，稱為緣法界眾生而發心。不但求自己得益，動機在使大家都得到利益。

總的說，由於人們所處的社會地位、生活環境和文化素養而有所不同，因而形成了不同的人生觀。但普遍來說，一般社會的價值觀建設在財富的多少或是在社會上的地位，並以此作為成功與否的唯一標準；追逐物質利益成為大部分人唯一的生活目標。然而，佛法的價值觀是：以智慧做為導向，自我心靈的淨化、提升；不當物欲的奴隸，去除貪、瞋、癡──根本於內心的三種毒素，提升自己的人格品味；願意將自己服務、奉獻於社會，追求高尚的生活──人生的意義也就在此。另外，如果說國際社會以一個國家經濟發達與否，以GNP（Gross National Product）及GDP（Gross Domestic Product）作為衡量的標準；那在佛法中，應該以GHP（Gross Happiness Product）及GMP（Gross Mindfulness Product）作為對先進國家的衡量標準──顯而易見的，普遍的社會觀與佛法的價值觀是有所差距的。佛法的價值觀是以追尋更為根本的快樂和價值，而不是一味地往外尋找那無法填滿、欲望的破杯子！

斯里蘭卡佛教見聞

2007-12-16T08:00:00.000-08:00

人生當中，總是滿懷無數的願望和憧憬，也有說不盡、數不清的無奈與感慨。回首來時路，走過的足跡早已隨風而逝，從未想過為自己留下一絲一毫的回憶。想想，在這如彈指般短暫而瞬息萬變的生命之流中，究竟能記錄些什麼，又能留下些什麼？對人事上種種喜、怒、哀、樂的情感，每每深鎖在腦海密匣裡。再者，深知自非文思泉湧、妙筆生花之屬；也因如此，就不曾存有將之抒發於外的念頭。這次因昔日學友「慈悲」的邀約，希望能將在斯里蘭卡留學期間所見聞的風俗民情與個人的心路歷程等，付諸筆墨，與同好分享。幾經思量，答應開啟那塵封已久的舊日思緒，把烙印在內心片斷的回憶，化為文字。或許這未能起任何鼓勵的作用，但至少是一片真心的流露。

斯里蘭卡（Sri Lanka）［以下簡稱為「蘭卡」］，位於印度洋與太平洋之間，風景秀麗，資產豐富，享有「印度洋上的珍珠」、「寶石之國」、「紅茶之國」之美譽。根據歷史記載，蘭卡是佛示寂後佛法最初傳入的地方，現今仍為南傳上座部佛教的主要根據地之一。佛教已有二千多年的歷史，直至今日，仍為蘭卡人民主要信仰的宗教。當然，一如世事變幻無常，教法的流傳，歷經千載，亦如波浪般地興衰起伏。西元前第三世紀至西元十一世紀之間，蘭卡的政治環境與社會生活安定，人民得以自由信奉佛教；但從十二世紀到十八世紀，因為國勢衰微，常受到外族侵略，國家的政權和經濟都遭受破壞，而人民的生活痛苦不安，同時也損害了佛教。直到1753年以後，幾近絕滅的佛教方始漸漸復興。

筆者目前暫居於一所禪修中心，座落於首都可倫坡第七區。當地有很多外國大使館，環境純淨而明媚，生活寧謐且安定。人民性情溫和，熱忱好客，溫文儒雅。蘭卡是農業國家，主要農作物為稻米、椰子、橡膠、及茶葉等。基於農業機械化程度尚未普及，牛是多數農民耕作的最佳伙伴，無論是在颳風下雨、酷暑嚴寒之時。也因如此，牛車牛群穿梭在大街小巷，乃司空見慣的情景。有趣的是，晚上在黑暗的道路上開車，經常會遇到成列的牛群行走於路中，這時，即使用方向燈照射或是猛按喇叭，牠們依然故我，如如不動，駕駛者往往無計可施，只得耐心地等待牠們自動離開。或許牛兒們知曉法令規定不得任意傷害牠們吧！再者，由於是農業社會的關係，形形色色的自然環境生態並未遭受大量的開闢、破壞──蘭卡實為風景優美的國家之一。

蘭卡是一個佛教國度，絕大多數人篤信佛教，佛塔和寺院比比皆是，處處可見。在人民的心目中，佛寺、佛塔、菩提樹是最神聖的地方，拜佛、禮塔和見僧時，都必須將鞋子脫掉；對於法師則需合掌跪下敬禮──即使身為總統也不例外。通過對菩提樹和佛塔的崇敬，使佛教溶入日常生活中，成為不可分割的一部分。其次，團體以出家眾為核心以及對戒律的尊重，至今仍然是此處佛教的特色。另外，在蘭卡，僧人可在政府、學校及其他社區部門任職；有些在國內外的大學中獲得博士學位，因而僧團中的著名學者或學問僧層出不窮。據聞，蘭卡佛教徒為了能夠復興的佛教，僧侶積極涉入政治，廣造輿論等，持續不斷地反對西方外來的宗教文化與殖民的侵略，因而有些便被冠上政治比丘或政治和尚之稱。

在這佛化的社會裏，僧俗間有著密切的互動。就在家信眾方面，將護持三寶、供奉僧團視為責無旁貸的義務與職守。蘭卡人口僅約二千萬，然寺廟大大小小則合計有五千多所。為使僧眾衣食無虞，每一寺廟所在地區，信眾都會自行安排、協調，每日輪流由一戶人家準備上好的飲食等獻供於僧團，誠心誠意，樂此不疲。附帶一提，蘭卡的僧侶有別於泰國、緬甸，無需出外托缽乞食，一切都由信眾送至寺院。

僧侶們平日也常接受住家招待午餐，叫做「檀那」（House Dana）。奉獻「檀那」的施主及其家族，均需身著白色的衣服。雖然施主具有一定的地位，但為了表示對僧寶的誠敬，必親手獻上椰汁、咖哩飯及其他的供養品，並不時對著法師們躬行禮，將心意表露無遺。目睹此一場景，深深激盪內心深處。此不禁讓人想起：修學佛法應如稻穗一般，越趨成熟之際，必然越往下垂，更顯謙卑，而決不是顯出趾高氣揚、不可一世之態。

佛寺多分布在城巿與鄉村間，構成佛教徒的宗教活動的中心。寺院通常有定期講經，舉辦周日佛學班，為信徒灌輸正信的佛教思想。而僧侶把在家信眾心靈的提昇當作義務和責任，為在家眾排憂解難、扶危濟困，使其精神怡悅。舉如為其婚喪嫁娶、生日慶典、店鋪開張等，盡心盡力地實行「法布施」。更確切地說，僧團承擔起社會的思想教育工作。或許過去曾誤解，認為南傳出家人對社會、眾生漠不關心，只求自度；但是從以上這種種看來，實有必要重新定位、修正了！

值得一提的是，蘭卡的僧人很善於「說法」，而且是極為普遍的──相對於所曾接觸的其餘國家都來的廣泛，幾乎每位法師都能勝任。由於比丘為在家居士說法的傳統在蘭卡是非常盛行，甚至不需特別加以培訓，沙彌們可透過觀摩其他年長比丘說法而學會其中技巧。有時在一天中即有數次的機會︰居士到寺廟供養齋食時；僧眾外出應供時；或在葬禮儀式上；或逢初一、十五與宗教節日；乃至周日佛學班，及其電視、電台的弘法節目等等。因此從受沙彌戒起，自然而然將對居士說法此一義務深植於意識之中。許多蘭卡比丘深信：「諸供養中，法供養最」，唯獨「法」才能真正地讓一切有情離苦得樂。

每月十五日這月圓之際，是蘭卡佛教的重大節日──Poya Day［意為齋戒日］。這一天是國定假日，且禁售酒肉，電影院等娛樂場所全都休業。舉國上下的佛教徒，闔家大小身穿素白色的套裝，到各各寺院聽經、禪修。

關於蘭卡佛教，還有一點值得說明：在許多地方存有佛教和印度教相混合的圖像。佛教徒在尊崇佛陀的同時，也崇拜印度教的各種神祇圖像。據說：為了來世，人們禮敬佛陀；為了眼前消災得福，則崇拜印度神祇。其他許多節日［如新年等］都與印度教及當地神教有所牽連，而將佛教與其餘神教混雜在一起加以紀念、慶祝。唯獨五月月圓日的Wesak節，才看不到佛教與印度教、神教混同；在蘭卡人民的心目中，五月月圓日已成為單純紀念佛陀的節日。這聯想到中國民間的信仰，也是佛、儒、道三教交互融合──諸如格義佛教；或是供奉佛陀的同時，也祭拜財神爺、土地公等的神祇。相較而言，只不過祭奉的對象不同而已。

在這人生地不熟的國度，能順利地安頓，真的要感謝當地長老法師們多方面的給予幫忙。對這一切殊勝的因緣，也讓人深切地感念三寶的加持力！離開自己熟悉的環境，遠赴這風景秀麗的寶島，接觸與過去的生活、文化、風俗完全不同的情境以及陌生的人、事、物。初到此地，確實有些不適應，猶如斷線的風箏，飄揚在那無垠的天空一樣。但回首反觀，卻也因為自己擁有太多太多而深感慚愧。感恩一切的因緣，但求調適自我身心以融入新的環境，而非寄望外界來順應個人──這是對自己的期許。或許未來需要面對更多的挑戰，然而，能有這些考驗都是必須感恩與珍惜的！正所謂「玉不琢不成器」，種種的考驗，必將成為未來人生中不可或缺的寶貴經驗！